Pro-environmental products: marketing influence on consumer purchase decision
The Authors
Josephine Pickett-Baker, Complete Fabrication Ltd, London, UK
Ritsuko Ozaki, Tanaka Business School, Imperial College London, London, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The objective of this paper is to investigate if marketing and branding techniques can help establish green brands and introduce greener patterns of consumption into contemporary lifestyles in the current context where environmentally friendly products are increasingly available.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper reviews consumer behaviour and advertising to identify how consumers are persuaded to opt for greener products. It reports the results of a consumer product survey using a questionnaire based on the Dunlap and van Liere HEP-NEP environmental survey and the Roper Starch Worldwide environmental behaviour survey. The respondents were 52 mothers who shop at supermarkets.
Findings – The results show a correlation between consumer confidence in the performance of green products and their pro-environmental beliefs in general. The findings suggest that most consumers cannot easily identify greener products (apart from cleaning products) although they would favour products manufactured by greener companies, and they do not find the current product marketing particularly relevant or engaging.
Practical implications – The paper suggests that the market for greener products could be exploited more within consumer groups that have pro-environmental values.
Originality/value – This paper identifies that consumers are not exposed enough to green product marketing communication and suggests the greater use of marketing and brands to promote and sell products that are environmentally friendly and function effectively.
Article Type:
Research paper
Keyword(s):
Environmental management; Beliefs; Consumer behaviour; Trust; Green marketing; Brands.
Journal:
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume:
25
Number:
5
Year:
2008
pp:
281-293
Copyright ©
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
ISSN:
0736-3761
An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article.
Introduction
Studies on the consumption of environmentally sustainable products have demonstrated that perceived product performance is a significant barrier to their selection. For example, Ottman (1998) shows that 41 per cent of consumers do not buy “green” products because of their perceived inferiority, citing a study of observable and product-specific information (e.g. use of biodegradable and recycling behaviour) by Roper Starch Worldwide (RSW). Alston and Prince Roberts (1999) found, in their research on environmental strategy and new product development, that there was a willingness to pay slightly more for environmental improvement in cleaning products than to sacrifice product performance.
One category of products is known as GPIs, or green product innovations, where the green product performance is significantly better than competitive or conventional products (Peattie, 1992). These have been heralded as a powerful solution to the stalemate between economy and environment (Porter and van der Linde, 1995). Firms have increasingly introduced GPIs into their product developments over recent decades. However, in his research on green product innovation strategy, Driessen (2005) finds that in order to maintain a competitive advantage, an optimum level of greenness needs to be identified between innovation performance and greenness, thus avoiding merely capturing the niche green market.
So, if the market for environmentally sustainable products is to become mainstream, it is important to look at what factors influence the consumer's selection process. This paper examines how consumers’ values/beliefs and attitudes, as well as their exposure to influences and information, shape their behaviour and perceptions of product performance, with a particular focus on the influential role of marketing. Can marketing influence consumer attitudes towards green products and their purchasing decisions? We consider whether the use of mainstream marketing techniques, and effective branding, can affect consumer decisions to opt for environmentally sustainable products.
We present a review of the literature on “green” behaviour under four themes:
- consumer beliefs and behaviours;
- consumer response to marketing of being pro-environmental;
- trust in the product; and
- consumer exposure to product marketing communication.
We draw hypotheses to test in a questionnaire-survey based empirical study.
Consumer “green” behaviour: literature review
Consumer beliefs and behaviours
Hoyer and MacInnis (2004) state that consumers' values and beliefs need to be considered when examining the influences that affect purchasing decisions. Values are enduring beliefs that a given behaviour is desirable or good and include valuing the environment. Environmental values play a primary role in pro-environmental behaviour: values affect people's beliefs, which then have influences on personal norms that lead to consumers' pro-environmental behaviours (Reser and Bentrupperbaumer, 2005; Stern, 2000). Similarly, Ajzen's (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior shows that (environmental) beliefs form attitudes towards behaviour, which is then translated into intention of behaviour. The Global Environmental Survey (GOES) finds a gradual intergenerational value shift in the post-war generation towards post-materialist priorities, likely to result in more pro-environmental behaviour (Bennulf and Holmberg, 1990; Betz, 1990; Hoffmann-Martinot, 1991; Inglehart, 1990). So, although pro-environmental values do not guarantee pro-environmental behaviour, it is likely that pro-environmental values lead to pro-environmental behaviour.
However, an individual concerned about the environment does not necessarily behave in a green way in general, or in their purchasing. This is known as the value-action gap. Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) explored a range of analytical frameworks and external and internal factors that promote pro-environmental behaviour and found conflicting and competing factors related to consumers' daily decisions. They concluded that no single definitive model adequately explains the gap between environmental knowledge and pro-environmental behaviour. A recent study finds that people who are environmentally conscious do not necessarily behave pro-environmentally: for example, people might throw rubbish away when most people around them do so (reactive process, as opposed to intentional decision making; Ohtomo and Hirose, 2007).
One of the conflicting factors, also discussed by Karp (1996), is the dilemma raised by greater environmental protection that benefits everyone, and rational self-interest, often leading to environmental exploitation (behaviour described by Hardin (1968) as “the Tragedy of the Commons”). It has been shown that when pro-environmental behaviour aligns with self-interest (and this behaviour is also normative) individuals comply (Ajzen, 1991). In this sense, advertising is to be effective when the product meets consumers' needs and aligns with their values (e.g. saving money on fuel, and increasing children's safety). Conversely, the value-action gap may arise when pro-environmental behaviour does not go along with self-interest:
H1. There is likely to be a gap between consumer beliefs and behaviours in relation to green consumption.
Consumer response to marketing of being pro-environmental
Values are regarded as principles that guide the formation of attitudes and actions (Rokeach, 1973), although values do not always lead to behaviour in real life. That is, people's attitudes affect their thoughts (the cognitive function) and feelings (the affective function), and thus influence behaviour such as purchasing behaviour (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). This implies that marketers should seek to change consumers' attitudes so that they can influence consumers' decision making and behaviour. The Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) suggests that marketers can influence consumers' attitudes and intentions by changing their evaluations through adding new beliefs and targeting normative beliefs. Branding is a valuable tool in this manipulation or forming of attitudes. Brands are effective because they have an effect on the affective domain: rational reasons are translated into emotional preferences (Travis, 2000). Thus, brands can shift consumer attitudes to more sustainable consumption. For example, affective marketing could convert passive green consumers who are willing to pay premium prices for pro-environmental products to greener consumption (“many shades of green” (Ottman, 1998)).
The purchase and consumption of products and services is often related to attempts to achieve, or maintain, ideals conceived either by the self or others (Hawkins et al., 1998). Some consumers may have an ideal self-concept of being environmentally responsible, but the actual self-concept may fall far short of this ideal, with no significant change towards a greener lifestyle. Thus, companies and products that effectively create the image of concern for the environment are likely to be supported by these consumers as providing one route towards achieving their ideal self-concept:
H2. Consumers will likely purchase more from manufacturers that are seen to be pro-environmental.
Trust in the product
The main influence on food and household product purchases is word-of-mouth. Hoyer and MacInnis (2004) find that it is four times more effective than the persuasion of sales assistants in affecting brand switching. On the other hand, negative word-of-mouth may be damaging. The performance of green products is often considered to be inferior (Ottman, 1998); early versions of green products did not have good performance and this previous experience may have been assimilated by word-of-mouth, and not redressed by later experience:
H3. Consumers will trust well-known products and will judge green products based on previous experience or word-of-mouth.
Consumer exposure to product marketing communication
The average consumer has less opportunity to form an attitude about a green product than about a main stream product, unless they have made a special effort to get to know the green product, as manufacturers of environmentally-improved products often make little or no green claims in their advertising (Rand Corporation, 2004).
Aspirational and associative reference groups have a strong influence on general consumption (Dittmar, 1992; Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). However, in advertising, where those reference groups are frequently used, they are rarely associated with green products. In general, green products are niche products, and marketing or mass media dominated influences for green companies and products are few (Charter et al., 2002).
Pooley and O'Connor (2000) argue that providing information on environmental issues does not necessarily foster pro-environmental attitudes. Their research suggests that the key to environmental education is the affective domain. Hawkins et al. (1998) explain how the emotional content in advertisements increases attention, a critical step in the perception process. Emotional messages may be processed more thoroughly and remembered better as a result of increased alertness. It is reasonable to assume that advertising green products using emotional content would be more successful. Advertising works well when it tries to appeal to those values that drive consumer decision processes (WFA et al., 2002).
When making decisions, individuals do not consider the product in isolation; they interpret new information in light of the context in which the information occurs (Plous, 1993). The effort involved in consumers' decision making can be influenced by past experience of a product, brand loyalty and price. The consumer's internal search is enhanced by feelings towards products that have been portrayed in an appealing context. As consumers often start from a low information base on sustainable consumption, their internal search may fail to supply the information necessary for decision making. If an external search is necessary, this involves high effort (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004), as seen above.
When the decision-making process is examined, there are a number of reasons why green products continue to be niche goods, selling only to committed ethical consumers without the aid of mainstream marketing techniques. For example, advertisers make claims about the limitations of advertising, that it is futile to attempt social engineering by working against consumer desires or lifestyles (WFA et al., 2002). However, it could be argued that such desires and lifestyles have reflexively developed as a result of advertising. Chaney (1996) shows that lifestyle and consumer culture have become interdependent in post-modern society. In other words, although some (manufacturing) companies would argue that they cannot influence consumer choice towards green products, they can and do shape consumption patterns through the products offered and how they are marketed (Rose, 2002).
According to Bocock (1993, p. 111) consumer desires, once aroused, are difficult to control socially: “as more and more groups in the world become aware of the goods on offer by having their desires stimulated, formed and articulated by mass media and modern advertising, so the number of people who form their sense of purpose and identity through “consumption” expands” (see also Chaney, 1996). Hence, if change were considered desirable to meet environmental goals, it would be more socially achievable to shift consumption to greener products than to significantly quash, the now identity linked, consumption.
Social norms are an important motivator of ecologically responsible behaviour (Ewing, 2001). The strength of the normative influence of the consumers' family and social groups on purchasing decisions depends on the characteristics of the product (e.g. luxury rather than a necessity, publicly displayed or used in private), the susceptibility of the individual consumer and the coercive power of the group to which the consumer belongs (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). Young people are more open to change than older people, and young adults strongly influence what happens in their homes (UNEP and UNESCO, 2001).
H4a. Consumers are unlikely to be exposed to communications about green consumer products.
H4b. Better market communication will induce consumers to purchase green.
These hypotheses were tested in an empirical study. Informed by reported trends (e.g. Bennulf and Holmberg, 1990; Betz, 1990; Hoffmann-Martinot, 1991; Inglehart, 1990) and consumer behaviours, such as changing values and obtaining ideal self-concepts (Hawkins et al., 1998), the study set out to establish the likelihood of consumers purchasing from green companies. Also, since consumers require exposure to a product and memory of it for their internal search for the information required for decision making (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004), the research looked for evidence of poor exposure to effective communication about green consumer products (leading to the subsequent lack of memory and necessitating major effort in decision making). Finally, based on significant interpersonal influences on consumer behaviour, such as word-of-mouth and social norms (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004), the research explored the source of actual or received experience and its effect on attitudes towards product performance.
Methodology
Defining environmentally sustainable products
Defining environmentally sustainable products is complex. In a strict sense, there is no such thing as a truly sustainable or green product, as all products we buy, own, use and discard in our everyday lives will have negative environmental impacts at some stage in their lifecycles. However, products can be classified according to the scale of these impacts, and a quality threshold can be drawn (Cooper, 2000). If a product has a low environmental impact, it is regarded as an environmentally sustainable product.
Another definition of an environmentally sustainable product, for consideration in this paper, is that products should be readily available for purchase and include those supplied by companies with a reputation for reducing environmental impacts from their manufacturing processes.
Samples
The type of consumer chosen for this study was a woman with children, who regularly shops at supermarkets. Ottman (1998) reports that the consumers most receptive to environmentally-oriented marketing appeals are women; as mothers, they would be motivated to secure their children's futures. Also, the characteristics of our respondents overlap those of the “swing group” consumers, who are neither active or non-active environmentalists and are willing to engage in environmental activities from time to time, but only when it requires little effort (Ottman, 1998). This swing group is the source of most conversions to green consumerism.
Respondents were recruited at supermarkets within a 40-mile radius of London. A sample of 52 was obtained, with an age range of 26 to 65.
Questionnaire and data analysis methods
The questionnaire was structured as follows. The first part contains the HEP-NEP questions (Dunlap and van Liere, 1978) to measure general environmental beliefs. Since its first publication, the HEP-NEP questionnaire has gained considerable currency and is considered an unofficial standard (Bechtel, 1997). The possible responses were: strongly agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree, and strongly disagree (Table I).
The second part included questions about environmental behaviour, with six questions related to purchasing behaviour and eight related to general behaviour, based on the RSW Green Gauge questions (Ottman, 1998), which segment green consumers by behaviours. The results were used as a benchmark for comparison of all other data in this study. The range of responses to the question “Do you do any of the following?” was: never, sometimes, frequently, and always (Table II).
The third part of the questionnaire covered marketing and branding issues related to attitudes towards green products, designed to explore topics identified in the consumer behaviour and advertising industry opinion sections. Again, the HEP-NEP environmental questions and the RSW environmental behaviour questions were used to contextualise the responses to the consumer product questions. The suggested responses (with the exception of question 5a, b and c) were: strongly agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree, and strongly disagree (Table III). Respondents were also asked to name any green product types that they had experience of using.
The questionnaire also included general demographic questions such as age groups. Respondents were invited to make general comments, too.
In order to conduct the scatter diagram and regression analysis, the responses were converted in a standardised numerical data form, to identify correlations. Each question was scored 0, 1, 2, or 3. For the environmental beliefs and behaviours questions, 0 indicates a complete rejection of environmental beliefs or absence of green behaviours, and 3 indicates complete acceptance of environmental beliefs and maximum participation in green behaviours. The information for each individual and each question was collated and the mean average score (maximum 3) was calculated for each question and each group of questions. For question 5 in the third part (i.e. the source of belief in green product performance), the number of yes responses in each category was collated and percentage occurrence calculated. Occurrences for age group and chosen product examples were also calculated.
The results were sorted against the following criteria and aggregated quartile means were examined for trends:
- Strength of environmental beliefs (general environmental behaviour and environmental beliefs) (Table IV).
- Belief in the performance of green brands.
- Choosing goods manufactured by companies making environmental improvements.
- Trust in well-known brands.
- Age group.
To test for significant correlations, scatter diagrams and regression statistics were generated (see Figures 1 and 2).
Results and discussion
Beliefs and behaviours
The scatter diagram and regression analysis results show that environmental behaviours are not significantly affected by environmental beliefs (p=0.1665; Figure 1). This suggests the well-documented gap between environmental beliefs and environmental behaviours and supports Hypothesis 1 that there is a gap between consumer beliefs and behaviours in green consumption. Product performance beliefs on the other hand, were shown to be significantly affected by environmental beliefs, when the figures for the two were tested for correlation (p=0.009; Figure 2).
As mothers, respondents have strong pro-environmental attitudes towards environmental problems (mean aggregated score 2.6 out of 3), and when respondents were sorted by age, there was no difference in environmental beliefs across age groups. This result supports Hoyer and MacInnis's (2004) arguments that demographics, with the exception of gender, are not a good indicator of environmental attitudes.
Environmental behaviour scores, both purchasing and general, were much lower than the belief scores (mean aggregated scores 1.8 and 1.6 out of 3). This is commonly referred to by environmental organisations as the value-action gap (Darnton, 2004). There was a slight increase in environmental behaviours with increased age. There was no evidence of a linear relationship between environmental beliefs and environmental behaviours. However, in the least environmentally concerned quartile environmental behaviour was lowest, and in the most environmentally concerned quartile environmental behaviour was highest (Table IV).
The Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) claims that a person's behaviour is determined by his/her belief of the outcome of that particular behaviour and by the opinions of his/her social environment, which then influences behavioural intentions. However, what people think is a good idea does not always predict what they actually do, especially in the case of environmental values and behaviours. First, values are often too general to lead a certain environmental behaviour (e.g. the purchase of green products), so unless values and beliefs are specific, they do not result in good environmental behaviour (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). Second, environmental behaviours are also influenced by subjective interests, such as pro-environmental self- images, as seen above (Hawkins et al., 1998). When such subjective interests are not met by a particular behaviour, values do not get translated into behaviour. Third, consumers evaluate a product by looking at its attributes, such as functionality and ease of use/performance. When these do not satisfy consumers, their values do not become behaviours (Rogers, 2003). These all could explain the value-action gap.
The environmental behaviour that the respondents participated in most was the recycling of bottles, cans, glass and newspapers and composting garden waste. There seems to be a number of reasons why these particular behaviours appear more popular than others. First, information about recycling has been reasonably consistent for a number of years, and reaches most of the population. Second, there is normative influence (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004) from family and neighbours, especially younger household members, which influences what happens in the home (Ewing, 2001). Therefore, consumers are motivated to recycle, this being consistent with environmental values and social influences/norms, aided by increased opportunity.
Consumer response to marketing being pro-environmental
Respondents said that they were more likely to choose brands which they knew were manufactured by companies whose products and processes were more environmentally friendly (mean aggregate score of 2.4 out of 3). No one strongly disagreed and nearly half the respondents strongly agreed that they would choose brands from these companies. There was a slight tendency for the most environmentally concerned respondents to be even more likely to make this choice. Respondents replied positively to feeling good about buying brands which are less damaging to the environment (mean aggregated score of 2.7 out of 3). If our consumer group has pro-environmental attitudes they may have self-concepts of themselves as environmentally responsible. This supports H2 that it is likely that consumers will purchase more from companies that are seen to be displaying CSR. Buying brands manufactured by companies whose products and processes are more environmentally friendly enhances a desired self-concept, allowing consumers to “feel good about it”. One important qualification, however, is that the product must function as effectively as non-green products and avoid the quality/cost trade-off (Alston and Prince Roberts, 1999). Conversely, negative perceptions of products can intervene the relationship between consumers' values and behaviour.
Trust in the product
The majority of respondents said that they generally trusted well-known brands to make effective products (mean aggregate score of 2 out of 3). The minority of those who disagreed with this statement were not identifiable as a group by any criteria in the survey. Marketers seek to favourably influence consumers' attitudes towards a given brand; considering the time, money and effort that is invested, this score seems disappointing. Personality traits (Hawkins et al., 1998) in individual consumers, such as cynicism, may partly explain this, together with negative word-of-mouth (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004) about some products, poor personal experience and other general sources of influence such as probing consumer reports and corporate scandals. Some respondents said they trusted certain brands and not others. On balance, however, the perceived risk of whether the product will perform as expected, which affects the motivation to purchase (Fowler, 2002), is lower for a well-known than a less well-known brand. The more positive the consumer feels about a product, the more likely they will be to consume it (Honkanen et al., 2006). Conversely, if they perceive product attributes negatively, this perception will cause the value-action gap.
In our survey, a significant correlation of 36 per cent was obtained between the strength of respondent's environmental beliefs and the belief that the performance of green products is as good as that of their non-green alternatives. The regressed data showed a p-value of 0.009, so β is non-zero (Figure 2). In other words, belief in green product performance was significantly affected by environmental beliefs. This finding supports H3 that consumers are likely to trust well-known products and to judge green products based on their previous experience and word-of-mouth. It also supports Hong-Youl and Perks' (2005) argument that brand trust is based on experience of the brand, information, familiarity and satisfaction.
The source of green product performance belief (not supplied by all respondents) was based on recent experience of a green product, least often in the least environmentally concerned quartile of respondents and most often in the most environmentally concerned quartile of respondents. Basing opinion of green product performance on word-of-mouth was not commonly cited (19 per cent). Of these respondents 80 per cent belonged to the least environmentally concerned quartile and agreed that green products performed less well. Performance opinion based on past use of a green product (over five years ago) was the most common, and this was more evenly distributed across the environmental and product performance belief spectrum. The 36-45 age group was the most positive about the performance of green products.
The reasons why green product performance beliefs are significantly affected by environmental beliefs could include the following. First, stronger environmental beliefs would make use of green products more likely. Recent positive product experience is clearly very influential, especially in the case of cleaning products where product performance is all-important. However, out-of-date product experiences are still circulating by word-of-mouth (negative), influencing performance beliefs especially amongst less environmentally concerned consumers who are then even less likely to try products. Second, it is possible that the consumer's general attitude towards the environment may affect the level of benevolence towards the product under evaluation, especially when a product is not inferior in any way, but requires a change of habit for its use. This cannot be satisfactorily demonstrated by our survey, but a further study should test this phenomenon under controlled conditions. For example, the performance of the same product may be evaluated differently depending on different user's environmental attitudes when the performance of the same task will be consistent. If this theory is established, influencing a consumer's general concern for the environment could make consumers more willing to try out green products.
Exposure
The ease of identifying more environmentally friendly products is reported as mildly difficult (1.5 out of 3) by the most environmentally concerned quartile of our respondents, ascending by quartile mean (1.7, then 1.8), to being fairly difficult (1.9 out of 3) by the least environmentally concerned quartile.
The most environmentally concerned quartile reported that they were aware of green product marketing, and found it mildly engaging and also relevant to their lifestyles. This result is not surprising, as it is mostly the green niche market that is being targeted by current marketing strategies. The other three quartiles were significantly less aware of green marketing; their awareness decreasing in line with their level of concern. They reported that green products were not generally marketed in a way that particularly engaged them. Given that all the respondents are likely to be exposed to similar general sources of influence, the level of consistency between an individual's environmental values and the personal relevance of identifying environmentally friendly products is a possible explanation of this increased awareness of those products, i.e. the motivation to identify them is greater (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004).
Of the respondents, 42 per cent were unable to name a specific product, or product type, on which their opinion of product performance might be based. However, 50 per cent of respondents cited biodegradable cleaning products of various types and makes (most commonly “Ecover”). This outcome may have been influenced by the sample group chosen (mothers who shop at supermarkets), as those products that are regularly stocked by supermarkets would have sprung to mind. It is unsurprising that 42 per cent of the respondents did not name a product or product type, when attention to a stimulus that is necessary for information to be perceived is selective, divided and limited (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). Therefore, H4a, that consumers are unlikely to be exposed to communications about green consumer products, is supported by these findings.
Product marketing communication
Respondents strongly agreed that they expected to be informed about new and improved product formulas and design (mean aggregate scores of 2.3, 2.6 and 2.5 out of 3). They want to be aware of the clear benefits (Alston and Prince Roberts, 1999) and how environmentally friendly products are. Opinion was evenly distributed across the respondents and not linked to environmental beliefs or behaviours. These findings support H4b that effective market communication will induce consumers to purchase green products.
Marketers generally pay close attention to effective communication with consumers. Markets are carefully segmented to reveal possible openings, for instance, by matching a brand to the characteristics of consumers. Product perception is influenced by situational variables and social reference groups. Product benefits are linked to specific lifestyles and designed to enhance or maintain a consumer's self-concept (Hawkins et al., 1998). Particular values, needs or goals are targeted by exploiting prior knowledge in launching new brands (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). How consumers think and feel about a particular product is affected by what they are accustomed to, and expect, as indicated by the responses above.
Most green products are marketed quite individually. This may be because their customers are not seen as “general” consumers, but as sensible restrained purchasers of essential supplies or niche products with no frills; market research is thus based on knowledge. However, this cognitive-based marketing communication used for many environmentally friendly products is shown to be useful only in some of the ways consumers form attitudes, thus limiting their appeal. What is missing in this approach is emotion, which plays a part in consumer response to brands and is found to be effective in influencing decisions, forming attitudes and remembering (Hawkins et al., 1998).
Summary
Despite limitations in terms of the breadth of the questions and the sample size, this study confirms the existence of an environmental value-action gap, a gap between consumers' beliefs and behaviours over being green. This appears to be due to the fact that general attitudes are not specific enough to lead to pro-environmental action and more specific subjective interests interfere with the relationship between values and behaviour. The research also found that consumers with high pro-environmental values are more likely to believe that green products will perform as expected, whilst among the majority of consumers, a major barrier to the purchasing of green products is concern over product performance.
Greater marketing exposure matters. As the responses show, consumers would be more likely to choose environmentally friendly brands. Respondents indicated that they felt good about buying brands that were less damaging to the environment. However, they also indicated that it was sometimes difficult to identify these products. They were not very aware of relevant or engaging marketing, which they felt should include information on the benefits of and improvements to the product. Overall, it is clear that the market for greener products is under-exploited by marketers within consumer groups with pro-environmental values. This finding suggests the greater use of marketing and brands to sell green products that are genuinely environmentally friendly and function effectively.
Managerial implications
This paper has highlighted various aspects of consumer behaviour and shown that consumer preference for greener goods could be influenced by marketing. Products given greater exposure will be more likely to sell in greater numbers especially to the “swing group” of consumers (as defined by Roper Starch Worldwide) who represent a similar size market segment to the early majority (33 per cent).
Pro-environmental values are more likely to result in more pro-environmental behaviour when values and beliefs are specific enough, the green action aligns with consumers' subjective interests, and product attributes are positively perceived. Demonstrating win-win scenarios for both the consumer and the environment is useful (e.g. safer for your children, saving money, projecting pro-environmental image, etc.). In some instances, a low energy-consuming product may have a higher initial purchase price, so an innovative pricing mechanism may need to be developed and marketed.
A major barrier to the purchasing of green products is concern over whether the product will perform as expected. However, consumers generally trust the performance of well-known brands, so green products that work well and do not make over inflated green claims could sell successfully under well-known brands. Early majority consumers are likely to trust the performance of well-known brands more than the performance of environmentally friendly products in general.
In current green marketing, branding is underutilised. The affective use of branding in selling green products should be part of marketing strategies. The effect of emotion on influencing decisions, attitude formation and memory retrieval, and the role that emotions play in consumer response to brands, should be taken into account. Consumers would be more likely to choose brands which they knew were manufactured by companies whose products and processes were more environmentally friendly. Consumers also feel good about buying brands which are less damaging to the environment. The cognitive-based marketing communication that is mostly used to sell environmentally friendly products is useful only in some of the ways consumers form product attitudes, thus limiting their appeal.
And yet, consumers often have difficulty identifying green products. They do not notice much relevant or engaging marketing. To be effective, this marketing needs to include information on the benefits of the product to the consumer and product improvements, such as “new improved formula and/or design”. Such information would help reduce the gap between values and actions. Hence, greater use of marketing and use of brands is crucial to sell green products, when the product is genuinely green and functions effectively.
In consumer groups whose values are pro-environmental, the market for greener products is underexploited by marketers. Values are moving in a direction likely to result in more pro-environmental behaviour, as borne out by the survey group. It is therefore reasonable to speculate that the decision to sell more green products, in this underexploited market, by developing more exciting green brands, will induce a gearing-up in the marketing to successfully achieve this.
Figure 1 Scatter diagram and linear regression of environmental behaviour against environmental belief
Figure 2 Scatter diagram and linear regression of belief in green product performance against environmental belief
Table I HEP-NEP general environmental beliefs questions
Table II RSW Green Gauge past environmental behaviour questions
Table III Consumer product questions
Table IV Abbreviated data sorted primarily by environmental beliefs and secondly by general environmental behaviour (analysed by quartile)
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About the authors
Josephine Pickett-Baker is the Managing Director of a model-making and special effects company that services the business areas of product design and marketing. Her research interest is to explore various aspects of environmentally friendly consumption.
Ritsuko Ozaki is a Senior Research Fellow at Imperial College London Tanaka Business School. Her research interests include consumer innovation adoption, and her current research project explores how consumers take up new energy service innovation. Ritsuko Ozaki is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: r.ozaki@imperial.ac.uk
Executive summary and implications for managers and executives
This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of the article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the material present.Environmentally-friendly products essentially remain a niche market. If such products are to enjoy mainstream appeal, it is crucial to identify and explore the factors that most impact on consumer purchase decisions.
Issues to consider
Previous studies have indicated product performance to be significant. Specifically, many consumers consider green products as inferior and are reluctant to make purchases. Conversely, other researchers detected a readiness to pay slightly more for ecologically sustainable cleaning products providing that performance was not comprised in any way. When new products are launched, a balance between performance enhancement and greenness is needed in order to widen their attraction.
Consumer values and beliefs substantially influence purchase decisions. In this context, environmental values are likely to motivate pro-environmental behaviours, although this outcome is not guaranteed. Studies have identified the “value-action gap” whereby environmental concern is not reflected in general or purchase behaviour. For instance, instead of recycling, people might throw rubbish away if those around them behave likewise.
Self-interest also often conflicts with ecological concerns, even if these interests involve environmental abuse or exploitation. Such misalignment is another example of the value-action gap. The opposite is true when correlation exists between normative self-interests and pro-environmental action. Similarly, advertising becomes more effective when the product meets consumer needs and aligns with values.
Values have been identified as key determinants of attitude and action. This had led to suggestions that marketers should attempt to influence consumer attitudes so that desired behaviour follows. Greater use of brands may provide one way of achieving this goal, as brands impact on the affective domain and the decision-making process is thus guided more by emotion than by reason. Appealing to emotion is potentially even more significant when information is scarce and many manufacturers seem reluctant to make green claims about their products within advertising.
One outcome of effective marketing through brand use may be the conversion of passive green consumers into more active participants. It has been noted that some consumers have an “ideal self-concept” of being ecologically responsible. In reality, however, their actions may fall short of this ideal and signify no real move towards a greener lifestyle. The use of brands may inspire such consumers, especially since it is argued that they are likely to support pro-environmental companies that offer the possibility of attaining the ideal self-concept.
The low-key marketing of green products means that many consumers are left with little knowledge about such items. Word-of-mouth (WOM) exerts considerable influence on purchase of food and household products but negative WOM can be damaging. Early green products were perceived as inferior and the legacy of this period is an ongoing battle against negative feedback for these products. But personal experience is more highly significant and those with past experience of a product will be less susceptible to other influences such as WOM.
Strong links exist between social norms and environmentally sustainable behaviour. However, the strength of these influences from family and social groups on purchase decisions depends on factors like product characteristics, consumer susceptibility and group persuasiveness. Evidence suggests that young people are more open to change and more influential within the home environment.
Study and findings
Pickett-Baker and Ozaki consider these factors and aim to establish the likelihood of consumers buying ecologically-benevolent products.
Women concerned about their children's future have been identified as particularly responsive to green marketing. Therefore, the sample chosen for the present study consisted of mothers who regularly buy from supermarkets. These respondents also exhibit similarities to “swing groups” – consumers who will periodically engage in green activities but only when it demands minimal effort on their part. Statistics show that such individuals are likeliest to evolve into green consumers.
The 52 participants were recruited at supermarkets near London and were aged between 26 and 65. Questions related to environmental beliefs, environmental behaviour, and marketing and branding issues concerning attitude to green products. General demographic information was also obtained.
Findings indicated agreement with earlier research in that:
- Environmental beliefs do not always strongly inspire environmental behaviour. This supports the idea of the gap between beliefs and action. One likely factor is that values may be too general and not specific enough to inspire action. The study likewise corroborates earlier indications that environmental behaviour must also satisfy subjective interests in order to become the chosen course. The value-action gap is also likely to emerge when product attributes such as functionality or ease of use fall below expectation.
- Strength of environmental beliefs significantly affects faith in product performance compared to non-green alternative. Furthermore, those most concerned about the environment were likelier to base beliefs on previous experience. WOM was used more frequently among individuals less environmentally concerned. The reliance on often-outdated WOM also means that such consumers become even less apt to try out the product.
- Correlation exists between level of environmental concern and awareness of green product marketing. This invites the assumption that motivation to identify such advertising is higher among the more green conscious.
- Consumers were more likely to choose brands produced by organisations with an environmentally-friendly reputation. The author suggests that this action helps consumers to feel positive about their actions and thus enhance their desired self-concept. Consumers most concerned about the environment were slightly likelier to make this choice.
- Consumers generally trust popular brands because perceived risk is lower than for those less well-known. However, many consumers are unwilling to compromise quality so the product must function as effectively as a non-green alternative.
- With minor exceptions, age had minimal influence on environmental beliefs. The finding mirrored previous investigations where gender was found to be the only significant demographic variable.
Marketing recommendations
Consumers expressed a desire for more information about ecologically sustainable products. This provides support for the idea that effective communication will inspire green purchasing. However, Pickett-Baker and Ozaki point out that much of the marketing used for such products is cognitive-based and therefore limited in effect. They urge companies to devise strategies that incorporate greater emotional appeal, ideally with products being merchandised under well-known brands. Research has shown that emotion plays a key role in consumer response to brands and provides an effective method of shaping attitudes, forming decisions and improving recall. Branding should be utilised much more in green marketing if the market is to expand from its niche status. Furthermore, using well-known brands can help allay fears about product performance.
The authors suggest an emphasis on how the product can meet both subjective and environmental needs can pay dividends. For example, consumers are likely to be attracted to products that can simultaneously save money, be safer for children while further demonstrating the sustainable actions of the individual concerned.
Marketers should also convey more information about any improvements made and how the product can benefit consumers. Pickett-Baker and Ozaki suggest that providing this information could help reduce the void between values and actions. She believes that any move that increases the exposure of green products can be rewarded with much higher sales, especially to individuals who have previously displayed a willingness to become greener consumers.(A précis of the article “Pro-environmental products: marketing influence on consumer purchase decision”. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)