An integrated approach to electronic waste (WEEE) recycling
The Authors
I. Dalrymple, C-Tech Innovation Ltd, Chester, UK
N. Wright, C-Tech Innovation Ltd, Chester, UK
R. Kellner, PRK Environment, Pailton, UK
N. Bains, Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials Limited, Coventry, UK
K. Geraghty, Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials Limited, Coventry, UK
M. Goosey, Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials Limited, Coventry, UK
L. Lightfoot, Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials Limited, Coventry, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank DEFRA for providing the funding for this research.
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to present a review carried out under DEFRA-funded project WRT208, describing: the composition of WEEE, current treatment technologies, emerging technologies and research.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper summarises the output from the first part of the project. It provides information on the composition of WEEE and an extensive survey of technologies relevant to materials recycling from WEEE. A series of further papers will be published from this research project.
Findings – WEEE has been identified as one of the fastest growing sources of waste in the EU, and is estimated to be increasing by 16-28 per cent every five years. Within each sector a complex set of heterogeneous secondary wastes is created. Although treatment requirements are complicated, the sources from any one sector possess many common characteristics. However, there exist huge variations in the nature of electronic wastes between sectors, and treatment regimes appropriate for one cannot be readily transferred to another.
Research limitations/implications – A very large number of treatment technologies are available, both established and emerging, that singly and in combination could address the specific needs of each sector. However, no single set of treatment methods can be applied universally.
Originality/value – This paper is the first part of work leading to the development of technical strategies and methodologies for reprocessing WEEE into primary and secondary products, and where possible the recovery of higher added-value components and materials.
Article Type:
General review
Keyword(s):
Recycling; Waste recovery; Electrical equipment; Electronic equipment and components.
Journal:
Circuit World
Volume:
33
Number:
2
Year:
2007
pp:
52-58
Copyright ©
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
ISSN:
0305-6120
1 Introduction
A range of techniques is currently applied for retrieving components and materials from WEEE. The essential features of these systems generally conform to a scheme of: sorting/disassembly; size reduction; separation. The first step is achieved almost exclusively by manual intervention. This is expensive, but most observers see a continuing reliance on it, at least in the short term. The second step includes a variety of impaction and shredding methods that are relatively well advanced. Although superficially they may appear somewhat crude in conception, the techniques in Step 2, in conjunction with the diverse and relatively sophisticated separation methods in Step 3, can achieve significant recovery of materials.
The WEEE Directive is impacting UK companies and authorities in two ways. Firstly, it applies constraints on how they operate in terms of provision and disposal of equipment, thereby increasing direct costs. The longer term benefits in reduction of environmental impact, and hence cost, should not be ignored, however. Secondly, the need to establish widespread recovery methodologies will provide the opportunity to enhance and to build business operations that generate profit from recycling of WEEE.
The ability of the UK to competitively address these issues will hinge on the further development of technologies relevant to recycling. These will fall into three areas:
- technologies that can enhance existing methods;
- technologies that are entirely new to the field and introduce new capabilities for recovery of materials and components; and
- technologies that are at the research stage and have not yet been implemented in any field, but demonstrate relevant possibilities.
A consultative guide on the WEEE Directive has been produced (DEFRA, 2004), which summarises the requirements and the restrictions, and gives a guide on current treatment methods. The DEFRA guide forms a framework within which to consider the emerging and future technologies that are, or could prove to be, relevant to the treatment of WEEE.
Included in the work reported here is a comprehensive analysis of sectoral WEEE composition, followed by a survey carried out to identify and assess state-of-the-art, emerging and future technologies. Reviews have been completed using public and private sources on a sector by sector basis and the scientific literature. An extensive body of relevant information has been gathered on the detailed analysis and evaluation of WEEE material composition and the technologies with either proven or potential relevance to WEEE. This has been complemented by interviews with experts in the field, including many site visits. The review aims to provide comprehensive coverage of the major technological possibilities. However, as the area encompasses a diverse range of technologies, new possibilities can emerge at any time.
2 WEEE composition
One of the key findings from this study has been the overall lack of publicly available information that is needed for companies to be able to make the necessary choices in terms of investment in recycling facilities and equipment. At the time of writing, there was still a large amount of uncertainty over the specifics of the implementation of the WEEE Directive, particularly with SMEs.
In broad terms, and considering the overall recycling process from final user, through collection and transportation to a suitable treatment facility, there is still no agreed or recommended pathway. Producers are uncertain as to which sites they will be allocated and smaller companies are unsure how best they can discharge their WEEE obligations through the numerous compliance schemes that have emerged.
There is also a lack of definition around the specific details of the treatment requirements of WEEE. For example, there is uncertainty about exactly at what stage of the recycling process printed circuit boards (PCBs) and LCDs will need to be removed from the waste stream. The lack of specific and detailed information of this type has hampered investment in recycling facilities. Similarly, there is no definition of the exact number of different types of WEEE skips that will be filled at Civic Amenity sites or DCFs. The WEEE Directive defines ten individual categories of WEEE, yet current proposals suggest that there may perhaps be no more than five and possibly as few as three actual segregated streams that are in reality collected. This reduced number of segregated categories has been proposed as a response to the need to limit the number of skips actually physically required at Civic Amenity sites because of space limitations.
A Network Recycling study (Bridgwater and Anderson, 2003) concluded that it was not practical to have a skip for each of the ten different categories of WEEE, and recommended simplification of the ten WEEE categories into five covering:
- Refrigeration equipment. Requires specialist treatment under the ODS regulations.
- Other large household appliances. Have a metal rich content and can be easily reprocessed together.
- Equipment containing CRTs. Owing to health and safety concerns relating to broken monitor glass this grouping must be handled separately.
- Linear and compact fluorescent tubes. To prevent contamination enable recycling.
- All other WEEE. There are no known technical reasons or EHS concerns which prevent this mixed grouping of WEEE from being reprocessed together.
Data compiled in previous studies on arisings of WEEE, expressed as weight and units for the ten categories, used sales data from 2003 as the starting point. Information was obtained from manufacturers, retailers, trade associations and market research organisations. The studies estimated that 939,000 tonnes of domestic equipment were discarded in the UK in 2003. This comprised 93 million items of equipment. Table I shows the arisings of domestic WEEE in the UK in 2003 (ICER, 2005).
No information on medical devices and automatic dispensers could be obtained and therefore they are not included in the above table. At present, no data has been found to estimate the arisings from business-to-business activities and other commercial WEEE.
One of the key factors that will determine the choice of most appropriate technology for recycling will be the material composition of WEEE. There are not only clearly significant differences in the types of equipment that fall into each of the ten WEEE categories but even with individual types of products. The rapidly accelerating transition from CRT-based televisions to those employing LCDs is a very apposite example. Also, even in terms of the materials that are common to many electrical and electronic devices, there are also changes being driven by legislation such as the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive. The best known example is the transition from lead-based to lead-free solder which is already occurring and which will be mandated for many products by July 2006. Whilst for some long lifetime products such as televisions this will not have an impact for many years, the entry into the waste stream of short lifetime products such as mobile phones will mean that the metals make-up of PCB related scrap will start to vary and there are likely to be a wider range of metals encountered than the tin, lead and copper associated with traditional printed circuit boards. Similarly, the proscription of cadmium, mercury and hexavalent chromium, as well as certain brominated flame retardant will also lead to compositional changes that will herald the introduction into the waste stream of a wider range of materials. This in turn will have ramifications for any recycling technologies that are developed to address individual waste streams for each of the WEEE Directive's ten categories.
Most types of EEE contain varying quantities and types of plastics and it has been understood for some time that there is a need to minimise the types of plastics used in electrical and electronic products in order to facilitate more effective recycling. The situation can be further complicated by the fact that there are compatibility issues not only between individual classes of polymers but also between the many different products that are produced for each class. The plastics that are commonly encountered in EEE are Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polycarbonate (PC), PC/ABS blends, High Impact PolyStyrene and Polyphenylene Oxide blends.
Segregation of WEEE into specific, clearly-defined streams at the collection stage is clearly the most effective approach technically for enabling recycle and reuse. In terms of the mixed grouping of “all other WEEE” as one of the five proposed categories, there appears to be no known technical or environmental health and safety concerns that prevent reprocessing together. However, the generation of highly mixed waste streams does not encourage reuse of components and recycling of added value materials. Segregation of smaller electronics products would make recycling much easier. Little is known of the technical solutions that may be available in the future and the economic balance is also far from established. Technologies that are capable of separating diverse complex streams will be crucial in maximising the recovery of resources from WEEE.
3 Existing technologies
Current recycling of WEEE on any reasonable scale is invariably accomplished via sequential processing.
3.1 Sorting/disassembly
Most recycling plants utilise manual sorting and disassembly and it is clear that this is a major cost element within any recycling methodology. Manual sorting involves the removal of hazardous components such as batteries and other items proscribed by the WEEE Directive, or the sorting into classifications such as high and low grade material. Disassembly is a systematic approach that allows the removal of a component, part, group of parts or a sub-assembly from a product (partial disassembly) or the separation of a product into all of its component parts (complete disassembly) for a defined purpose.
Process planning has the objective of developing procedures and software tools for disassembly strategies and the configuring of disassembly systems. The phases for the development of a process strategy would comprise the following: Product analysis; Assembly analysis; Analysis of non-specification issues – defective parts or product upgrades, etc. Dismantling strategy – destructive or non-destructive disassembly. Existing practice in the recycling of WEEE places selective disassembly as a vital and integral element of the process, giving priority to the reuse of components and the dismantling of hazardous components. The recovery of valuable materials from items such as printed circuit boards, cables and engineering plastics is simplified by such an approach.
3.2 Crushing/comminution
This category consists of mechanical processes such as physical impaction, shredding/fragmentation and granulation, which break down products to enable the salvaging of reusable and recyclable parts, components and materials. Shredding breaks down the product into pieces via ripping or tearing which may then be sorted into material streams having dissimilar subsequent processing demands. Granulation is the mechanical processing of production scrap, post-consumer plastic packaging, industrial parts, or other materials into fine particles.
3.3 Separation
A variety of separation methods are available:
- Screeners are sifting units that are rotated as powder is fed into their interior.
- Air classifiers, cones or cyclones using the spiral air flow action or acceleration within a chamber to separate or classify solid particles
- Concentrating tables or density separators screen bulk materials or minerals based on the density (specific gravity), size and shape of the particles.
- Electrostatic separators using preferential ionization or charging of particles to separate conductors from dielectrics (non-conductors).
- Floatation systems separate hydrophobic particulates from hydrophilic particulates by passing fine air bubbles up through a solid-liquid mixture. The fine bubbles attach to and lift or float the hydrophobic particles up where they are collected.
- Magnetic separators use powerful magnetic fields to separate iron, steel, ferrosilicon or other ferromagnetic materials from non-magnetic bulk materials. The magnetic field may be generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets.
- Rake, spiral and bowl classifiers use mechanical action to dewater, deslime or separate coarse bulk materials from finer materials or liquids.
- Trommels are large rotary drums shaped with a grate-like surface with large openings to separate very coarse materials from bulk materials, e.g. coarse plastics from fine aluminium.
- Water classifiers such as elutriators and classifying hydrocyclones use settling or flow in water or a liquid to separate or classify powdered materials based on particle size or shape.
4 Technology review
4.1 Overview
Emerging technologies and current research will provide future opportunities to add value to recovered materials. The greater is the purity of the product that results from the recovery process, the higher will be its value, and therefore the greater the potential viability of that process. A major goal for new technologies must, therefore, be to deliver improved efficiency of separation and of material recovery. The review was not restricted to techniques developed specifically for WEEE. While the legislation is a relatively new driving force for research, many sectors, for example, mining, have a much longer, and well-resourced, history of development of recovery methods, many of which are likely to be relevant to the current study.
Experience in Europe has reinforced the case for technical solutions to WEEE recycling. An extensive study has taken place in Switzerland, which has well established take-back and recycling systems, including SWICO (for computers, consumer electronics and tele-communication equipment) and S.EN.S (household appliances). This study has concluded that throughout the complete recycling chain, the sorting and dismantling activities of companies are of minor interest, and that instead the main impact occurs during the treatment applied further downstream to turn the waste into secondary raw materials (Hischier et al., 2005). When comparing the environmental impact of WEEE recycling with that derived from the baseline scenario, which involves incineration of all WEEE and primary production of the raw materials, WEEE recycling proves to be clearly advantageous from an environmental perspective. The establishment of viable technical processes for achieving such recovery is therefore highly important for the future of stakeholders. Although most parties agree with this conclusion, they would attach more importance to sorting and dismantling, which are generally seen as means of achieving higher value returns from the downstream recovery processes. In Japan, success has been achieved in recycling by relying heavily on logistical solutions and manual dismantling, rather than on innovation in the subsequent recovery processes, and has concentrated on the treatment of four categories of WEEE; refrigerators, air conditioner units, televisions and washing machines (DTI, 2006).
Given these contrasting views, and the importance of the European activities on WEEE recycling approaches in the UK, it can be concluded that once the logistics are established, the added value for the recovery and recycling of materials and components will be provided by the technological approach.
The EC's RoHS Directive is a further driving force that will shape the way in which compliance with the WEEE Directive is realised in technical terms. It is recognised that some chemical analysis strategies will be a key ingredient. Delft University reports a system for weighting the environmental recyclability of products that can assist in defining technical strategies for recycling (Stevels and Huisman, 2003). This is particularly useful since it applies a monetary value, which can be used to illustrate economic benefits of recycling.
The literature search generated many references across a wide variety of areas, reflecting the complex demands of WEEE recycling. The identified technologies were classified into categories that relate to their potential role as options in an integrated recycling process. A brief overview of results from some of these categories is provided in this section. Other categories are not included in this summary, such as dry capture techniques, biotechnology, sensors, etc.
These categories were identified in the initial stages, and it became evident that they varied in the levels of innovative research activity, and, as further information was gathered, that some are therefore far more important than others in facilitating future improvements in WEEE recycling. In addition, there are certain trends, driven by either legislation (e.g. RoHS) or by commercial interests (the rapid proliferation of LCD screens) that have significant impact on the composition of WEEE, and therefore on the technologies required for recycling.
Complementing the wide range of technologies that are under investigation, several groups are researching methodologies that can aid the formulation of recycling strategies, and establishing “Reverse Supply Chain Technology” (Franz, 2002), which is a generic term that has been adopted to encompass technologies specifically devised to facilitate disassembly of equipment and recovery of components. Some of these model the recycling routes and apply a numerical survey that can measure and compare the capabilities of different processes. Such advanced tools will help in identifying areas of weakness, optimising recycling routes and in encouraging adoption of recycling. Implementation of the results of these studies is not only by the provision of appropriate routes incorporating new methodologies, but also by influencing the design of products for greater ease of recycling in the future.
4.2 Automated disassembly
Disassembly is a crucial initial operation, since it allows compliance with requirements to remove sources of potentially toxic materials, such as batteries. It also simplifies the further processing by providing better defined streams for the subsequent separation and recovery stages. Being almost exclusively a manual process at present, this is a very expensive operation. Any technologies that can facilitate automation of this stage will greatly improve the viability or profitability of the whole recovery process.
The need to reduce reliance on human intervention inevitably leads to relatively sophisticated technologies that largely fall into the broad categories of imaging and recognition methods, and robotic techniques. The interfacing of the two is also a major issue. Here, considerable attention is being paid to the introduction of intelligent systems, sometimes incorporating hierarchical control strategies. Clearly, all recovery processes are simplified if the WEEE stream is well defined. In addition, there are various upstream technologies that aim to simplify the disassembly process itself. This is achieved through either the design of the item, or by the incorporation of particular features and materials that are readily amenable to demounting. Prominent here are shape memory metals, and shape memory plastics.
4.3 Comminution
The operation of size reduction of scrap is based on a number of mature technologies. Advances in automated recycling are not likely to depend crucially on developments in this area. The main issues are the optimum size of product for the sorting technologies that are to follow and economic factors. It is attractive to recyclers to limit the degree of size reduction since the cost escalates rapidly as particle size diminishes. Accordingly, the influence of the particle size on the subsequent sorting efficiency is receiving increasing attention. Several groups have recognised that better matching of fragment size to sorting process can greatly increase recovery efficiency.
4.4 Separation
An important goal is the development of improved separation processes for upgrading the level of valuable materials in waste fractions. An active area of study is the separation of different plastic types. Typically, 20-25 per cent by weight of WEEE is polymeric, equivalent to about 50 per cent by volume. Current methodologies frequently involve the separation of the metallic and non-metallic fractions as a basic step. Separation of plastics from the heavier fractions is relatively easily achieved, but most current processes cannot further refine them, producing only mixed plastics. A wide variety of plastics is involved, and discrimination is very difficult. Polymer degradation resulting from recovery processes can produce plastic recyclate that is generally suitable only for low grade applications. Many observers have commented that techniques that can facilitate the recovery of pure polymers from heterogeneous streams of recyclable plastics will be a key factor in the widespread implementation of WEEE recycling. There is concerted effort to develop such methods, either by innovative separation processes based on physical attributes, or on sophisticated sensing methods that can be integrated into intelligent sorting systems. A further complication is the presence of brominated flame retardant plastics, which compromise the potential for recycling because of their toxicity. Currently these comprise about 25 per cent of plastic waste from WEEE, and discrimination of these materials is a major issue.
Apart from the issues of discriminating specific types amongst mixtures of plastics, technical progress is being made in the recovery of the basic materials for re-use. It is accepted that some degradation is likely to occur, but mixtures of reclaimed and virgin feedstock can be used to produce material of sufficient quality for many applications. An ability to assess the number of times that a particular plastic has been recycled would be a useful tool in determining the ability of recycled material to meet the specification required for possible applications. Colour recognition provides a means to achieve this. Under visual light radiation, the optically measured colour of recycled material can be compared to standards established using virgin material (Fujitsu Ltd, n.d.).
Sharp in Japan (DTI) has adopted a similar approach, where they attribute degradation of polymers in service to a falling level in anti-oxidants. The company has a technique that can measure this reduction, and a method for revitalising the polymer by replenishing the antioxidant content.
Sensing offers a particularly powerful methodology for the discrimination of polymer types. When sensors are allied to appropriate combinations of intelligent sorting devices, high levels of differentiation can be achieved, greatly enhancing the value of the resultant recyclate streams. A particular issue is the identification of brominated flame retardants.
4.5 Thermal treatment
In the case of metals recycling, there are clear advantages in adopting routes involving thermal treatments, in that they avoid the liquid effluent disposal problems associated with wet chemical extraction methods. Thermal incineration combined with pyrometallurgical treatments are in commercial use for metal recovery from printed circuit boards, as well as being the subject of much further research. Although they comprise only about 3 per cent by mass of WEEE, PCBs contain significant quantities of valuable metals (29 per cent by weight) from which copper and noble metals can be extracted. In the main, only partial separation of metals can be achieved using pyrometallurgy, resulting in a limited upgrading of the metal value. Further, processing at specialised refineries is subsequently necessary.
4.6 Hydrometallurgical extraction
The application of hydrometallurgical methods to the recovery of metals involves a large body of research. The techniques are established in primary extraction processes for various metals from ores, and adapted approaches have been devised for application to various secondary materials, including PCBs, for example, electrorefining is used following thermal processing for the purification of copper with the separation of precious metals. Selective recovery of pure metal products directly from waste streams is a potential key advantage of these methods. The main disadvantages are related to the need for using toxic and corrosive chemicals that produce waste streams. An example is the use of cyanide for gold recovery from a variety of primary and secondary materials (Mishra, 2002).
4.7 Recycling and inverse manufacturing design
Most constituents of WEEE today were designed without consideration of recycling issues. An important body of research work is now being directed towards the study of “Design for disassembly” and “Design for recycling.” Increasingly today and in the future, product design is incorporating these principles. An example is the potential use of shape memory materials to effect the separation of polymer and electronic components in used mobile telephones (Chiodo J, available at: www.activedisassembly.com/index3.html). The main principles that should be followed (EPPIC, n.d.) and a business model for the reverse supply chain have been defined (Reddy, 2002). Innovative schemes for setting up reverse supply chains are being applied, for example, at a local authority in Belgium (ACCR, n.d.), which can provide models for further implementation of this approach.
5 Conclusions
- There is an urgent need for clarification of the overall process that takes end-of-life products from the final user to the recycler. A key recommendation is that the outstanding logistics issues are addressed in order to enable recyclers to define optimised processes for materials acquisition, processing and recovery.
- If recycled materials from WEEE are to be successfully used in new applications more detailed consideration must be given to the development and support of end markets for these materials.
- WEEE deposited at CA and other central collection sites should be segregated as far as possible into distinct streams that are compatible with subsequent transport and recycling technology choices.
- There is an ongoing need to educate designers regarding choices of materials and the implications of their choices on materials recycling.
- There is a good incentive to recycle large “white goods” because of the relative accessibility and value of the metal content. They account for 51 per cent by weight and 11 per cent by units of all arisings. About 77 per cent of recycled WEEE arises from large household appliances (including fridges).
- The RoHS Directive will influence WEEE composition: lead-free solders; cadmium, hexavalent chromium, mercury; brominated flame retardants.
- The nature of WEEE continuously evolves, and much research today is anticipating these trends. They include the burgeoning sales of LCD screens.
- In the project so far, existing, emerging and future technologies that could be applied to WEEE recycling have been identified.
Table IArisings of domestic WEEE in the UK in 2003
References
Bridgwater, E., Anderson, C. (2003), "CA site WEEE capacity in the UK", Network Recycling, September, .
DEFRA (2004), "Consultation draft: consultation on guidance on treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)", available at: www.environment-agency.gov.uk/commondata/acrobat/weee_consult_833453.pdf, July, .
DTI Global Watch Mission to Japan (2006), "Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): innovating and novel recovery and recycling technologies in Japan", Heritage Motor Centre, Warkwickshire, Dissemination Event, 18 January 2006, .
EPPIC (n.d.), Faraday Partnership Newsletter, Vol. 12.
Franz, R.L. (2002), "Optimizing portable product recycling through reverse supply chain technology", Proceedings IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment, San Francisco, CA, USA, 6-9 May, pp. 274-9, .
Fujitsu Ltd. (2004), "Method and device for discriminating resin material recycling frequency, and classification device for resin material recycling frequency", JP 2004-028707 Inventors: N. Takamitsu & K. Kiochi, 29 January , .
Hischier, R., Wager, P., Gauglhofer, J. (2005), "Does WEEE recycling make sense from an environmental perspective? The environmental impacts of the Swiss take-back and recycling systems for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)", Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Vol. 25 No.5, .
ICER (2005), Status Report on WEEE in the UK, Interim Report by ICER, Industry Council for Electronic Recycling, London, January, .
Mishra, R.K. (2002), "Cyanide destruction and gold recovery – a review", Precious Metals, pp. 44-65, Vol. 26.
Reddy, R. (2002), "Shift into reverse: implementing a reverse supply chain can increase profits and reduce the bullwhip effect", Intelligent Enterprise Magazine, May, .
Stevels, A., Huisman, J. (2003), "An industry vision on the implementation of WEEE and RoHS", Proceedings of EcoDesign'03: 3rd International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, Tokyo, Japan, 8-11 December, .
Further Reading
ACCR (n.d.), in Hannequart, J.P. (Eds),The Management of WEEE – A Guide for Local and Regional Authorities, Association of Cities and Regions for Recycling, Brussels, .
About the authors
I. Dalrymple
is Technical Director at C-Tech Innovation Ltd, a research and innovation company situated near Chester. Ian is a Chemist with a PhD in Electrochemistry and 30 years experience in applied research, including recycling technologies, and is one of the inventors of a patent for a novel leaching technology to recover metals from PCBs. Management of collaborative research projects has been an important activity over many years, e.g. as co-ordinator of five EU funded research projects, as well as the DEFRA funded research project leading to this publication. I. Dalrymple is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: ian.dalrymple@ctechinnovation.com
N. Wright
is a first degree in physics and he is qualified as both Chartered Physicist and Chartered Engineer. He has 30 years experience in industrial research and development and has worked in the cables, nuclear and electricity industries. He is currently a Project Manager with C-Tech Innovation, a leading independent technology development and multidisciplinary consultancy, which provides innovation services to process and environmental industries. His activities include atmospheric pressure plasmas, surface treatment, induction heating, electrochemistry, and coordination of national and European research projects.
R. Kellner
has over 30 years experience in the environmental and waste treatment fields. With an electronics and surface chemistry research and development background and an awareness of the importance of environmental issues, Dr Kellner has pursued his own manufacturing and consulting interests for many years. Dr Kellner has specific expertise in implementing true zero discharge waste treatment systems and is currently working with both the Surface Engineering Association and Intellect to promote and enhance their environmental commitment to member companies via the Faraday Mini-Waste and latterly the Resource Efficiency Knowledge Transfer Network.
N. Bains
currently works as a Technology Manager within the Resource Efficiency Knowledge Transfer Network supporting the National Industrial Symbiosis Programme for the East Midlands. Narinder previously spent 11 years as a Research and Development Chemist at Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials Ltd's (formerly Shipley Europe Ltd) European headquarters in Coventry, where he had responsibility for environmental R&D activities. A Chemist by training with a BSc honours degree in Applied Chemistry, Narinder has many years experience in the electronics industry.
K. Geraghty
is a Principal Consultant with WSP Environmental. Prior to joining WSP, Kate was a Development Manager for the National Industrial Symbiosis Programme and she has also worked for Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials as Environmental Projects Manager with responsibility for the technical and financial aspects of the company's externally funded environmental projects. Kate has a BSc in Environmental Science from the University of Aberdeen and an MSc with Distinction in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment from Coventry University. She is currently undertaking a distance learning course at the University of Surrey in Environmental Life Cycle Management.
M. Goosey
is a Chemist by training with over 30 years experience in the electronics industry. Martin is currently Industrial Director of the Innovative Electronics Manufacturing Research Centre (IeMRC). He is a Chartered Scientist, a Chartered Chemist, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry and Fellow of the Institute of Materials. Prior to his current role he was Chief Scientist and Technology Fellow at Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials' European Technical Centre in Coventry, where he worked for 15 years. Martin also spent 15 years working at the Plessey Company's Allen Clark Research Centre and three years at the Morton Chemical Research Centre in the USA. He is currently Editor of Circuit World and a Member of the Council of the Institute of Circuit Technology.