Ethnic identity, consumption of cultural apparel, and self-perceptions of ethnic consumers
The Authors
Veena Chattaraman, Department of Consumer Affairs, College of Human Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
Sharron J. Lennon, Department of Fashion and Apparel Studies, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether ethnic consumers' consumption of cultural apparel, and attributional responses related to their consumption, is predicted by their strength of ethnic identification. The study also examined whether the consumption of cultural apparel mediates the influence of strength of ethnic identification on consumers' attributional responses.
Design/methodology/approach – Internet survey research was the chosen methodology for this study. A convenience sample of 106 research participants from four ethnic subcultures in the USA were recruited.
Findings – Regression analyses revealed that strength of ethnic identification was a significant predictor of cultural apparel consumption and attribution of emotions and meanings to the consumption. Further, consumption of cultural apparel perfectly mediated the influence of strength of ethnic identification on consumers' attributions of emotions, and partially mediated this influence on consumers' attributions of meanings.
Research limitations/implications – The study provides valuable implications for channeling apparel product development, merchandising, and retailing to better meet the emotional needs and preferences of ethnic consumers. The main limitation of this study is the use of a non-representative sample.
Originality/value – Prior research on ethnic consumers' motivations in consuming cultural products is limited. This study fills this gap in the literature at a time when large retailers are seeking to attract ethnic consumers through culturally targeted apparel products and brands.
Article Type:
Research paper
Keyword(s):
Ethnic groups; Consumer behaviour; National cultures; Clothing; United States of America.
Journal:
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Volume:
12
Number:
4
Year:
2008
pp:
518-531
Copyright ©
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
ISSN:
1361-2026
Introduction
The US Bureau of Census (2000a, b) population projections reveal that the racial and ethnic composition of the USA will change significantly by 2050. Currently, Hispanics and African Americans comprise over a quarter of the total population of the USA, and this number is predicted to increase substantially in the future. The Hispanic population is expected to double from 11.8 percent of the total population in the year 2000, to 24.3 percent of the total population in the year 2050 (US Bureau of Census, 2000a, b). Similarly, the African-American population is expected to increase from 12.8 percent of the total population in the year 2000, to 14.7 percent of the total population in the year 2050. The Asian and Pacific Islander population in the US is also expected to triple from 11.3 million (4.1 percent of the population) in 2000, to 37.6 million (9.3 percent of the total population) in 2050. The changing pattern in the compositional structure of projected US population is a concern and challenge to retailers, since it has important implications for understanding the core needs of different ethnic subcultures, and the design of appropriate product and marketing strategies targeted to meet these needs.
Apart from the population figures, the purchasing power of the different ethnic subcultures forms another important consideration for retailers and marketers. The combined buying power of Hispanics, African Americans, and Asians, currently exceeds one-trillion dollars, and is expected to rise further (Hammer and Skolnicki, 2005). Retailers including JCPenney, Sears Roebuck (now acquired by Kmart), Target, Walmart and Kmart are now focusing on increasing their market share by implementing strategies targeted to ethnic subcultures, such as targeting merchandise assortments in stores, introducing ethnic brands, and offering specialty products such as apparel and jewelry for cultural celebrations. For example, in 2003, Kmart launched a Hispanic-directed apparel brand, called Thalia Sodi Collection, which generated more that $17 million in 39 weeks (Alexander, 2005). Sears is similarly offering apparel product lines that are designed for specific ethnic subcultures, such as Azucar Bella, a Hispanic-directed brand, and Russell Kemp, an apparel brand targeting African American consumers (Howell, 2004).
In the context of apparel retail, the success of such endeavors largely depends on the retailers' ability to understand why ethnic consumers' “choose to” or “choose not to” wear apparel products associated with their ethnic culture. Specifically, a key question that has been infrequently addressed in past literature relating to ethnic consumer behavior is: “do ethnic consumers attribute positive (or negative) emotions and meanings to the consumption of cultural (ethnic/ethnic-inspired) apparel, and what do these attributions depend upon?” This study explores this question through survey research conducted among four ethnic subcultures in the USA. The study specifically investigates if consumers' use of cultural indicators in dress, and attribution of emotions and meanings to this usage, is predicted by their strength of ethnic identification. The study also examines whether the consumption of cultural apparel, operationally defined as the usage of ethnic/ethnic-inspired apparel, mediates the effect of strength of ethnic identification on consumers' internal attribution of emotions and meanings related to cultural apparel consumption.
Review of literature
Individuals within the US culture are surrounded by a context that can be defined as postmodern and multicultural. Both terms signify a pluralism of meanings; a multiplicity of individual meanings in the case of the former; and a pluralism of shared meanings in the case of the latter. Kaiser (1993, p. 43) advances that clothes are rooted in successive contexts, which range on a continuum from “micro” to “macro” dimensions. Viewed from the micro perspective, which focuses on individual perceptions and behavior, an individual's attempt to manage his or her appearance involves “negotiating identities” through a “cultural dialogue or struggle for meaning” (Kaiser, 1993, p. 43).
Based in the symbolic interactionist perspective, Goffman (1959) presented a compelling argument that linked individual identity, social interactions, and the physical setting through a dramaturgical performance of one's self in the front, back and outside stage settings. The actor or individual uses this performance as a medium to communicate information about the self and manage impressions that others receive based on implicit and explicit goals. This exchange of information facilitates the development of identity, and particularly social identity or “collective representation” in the front stage performance of the individual. In constructing this social or collective representation, the individual may use variety of verbal and non-verbal communicative cues such as dress in the process of tailoring an appropriate representation of the self to specific groups of audiences. This dialogue in the construction of identity through dress is particularly visible among individuals belonging to ethnic minority groups operating within the broader context of the mainstream American culture. These individuals often encounter two distinct groups of audiences associated with the ethnic and the mainstream cultures with differing expectations of “appropriate self-presentation.”
An ethnic minority group has been defined as a subcultural group within a dominant culture that has a distinct cultural background, and is differentiated from the dominant culture through externally visible characteristics, which may be physical or cultural (Forney, 1981). Dress is one such externally visible characteristic, which in the case of members of ethnic subcultures can serve two functions: to visually indicate subcultural ethnic affiliation or membership; or to visually integrate the individual to the mainstream American culture, thus reflecting acculturation or homogenization of values and of external characteristics. Forney posits that individuals' retention of ethnic identity through elements of dress is related to their level of assimilation into the mainstream culture.
Ethnic identity and consumer behavior
Ethnic identity has been defined as the shared identity of a group of people based on a common historical background, ancestry and knowledge of identifying symbolic elements such as nationality, religious affiliation and language (Forney, 1981). Numerous studies that have investigated the impact of ethnic identity on consumer behavior have operationally defined ethnic identity as an individual's strength of ethnic identification (Chung and Fischer, 1999; Deshpande et al., 1986; Donthu and Cherian, 1994; Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986; Hirschman, 1981; Kim and Arthur, 2003; Laroche et al., 1998; Phinney, 1992; Webster, 1992; Xu et al., 2004). According to Deshpande et al. (1986), an individual's strength of ethnic identification signifies the individuals' base level of affiliation with an ethnic group. This construct differs from the related construct of acculturation in that strength of ethnic identification focuses on the maintenance of aspects related to the culture of origin, whereas, acculturation focuses on the acquisition of aspects of the host or mainstream culture (Laroche et al., 1998).
Consumer research conducted among varied ethnic subcultures has found that the construct of strength of ethnic identification significantly impacts the consumption of varied products such as: ethnic and ethnic-inspired apparel (Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986; Kim and Arthur, 2003), traditional foods (Laroche et al., 1998; Xu et al., 2004), ethnic soft drinks (Chung and Fischer, 1999), and ethnic entertainment such as movies, music, and cultural performances (Xu et al., 2004). Specifically, studies have found that higher levels of ethnic identification positively affect the consumption of ethnic products such as ethnic/traditional foods (Laroche et al., 1998; Xu et al., 2004). Other studies have also found that the construct of strength of ethnic identification has significant effects on service consumption (Chung and Fischer, 1999; Donthu and Cherian, 1994) and brand loyalty (Deshpande et al., 1986; Donthu and Cherian, 1994), wherein Hispanic consumers high in strength of ethnic identification demonstrated greater loyalty toward brands used by family and friends, as compared to Hispanic consumers low in strength of ethnic identification (Donthu and Cherian, 1994).
Ethnic identity and consumption of cultural apparel
Eicher and Sumberg (1995, p. 299) define ethnic dress as “ensembles and modifications of the body that capture the past of the members of group, the items of tradition that are worn and displayed to signify cultural heritage.” They emphasize that ethnic dress forms a medium of differentiation between groups and is adopted by group members to visually separate themselves from members of other groups. The researchers also argue that ethnic dress is a means of communicating the ethnic identity of an individual or group, particularly amidst other groups, by visually signaling the ethnicity of the wearer.
Few researchers (Chen and Stanley, 1994; Forney, 1981; Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986; Kim and Arthur, 2003) have studied consumer attitudes toward cultural apparel in relation to the ethnic identity of the wearer. In an empirical study (Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986) investigating the relationship between ethnic identification and use of ethnic dress among seven ethnic groups in the San Francisco Bay area, the researchers defined ethnic dress as traditional dress symbolizing the ethnicity of the individual. They measured its usage based on where and when the participants wore ethnic dress and whether such usage signified pride in their ethnic background. This study found that consumers who scored high on the ethnic identity measure also reported greater use and identification with ethnic dress. Kim and Arthur (2003) investigated the effect of the strength of ethnic identification on Asian American consumer's attitudes toward wearing and ownership of ethnic apparel; however, they defined ethnic apparel as contemporary ethnic inspired garments. Their findings were consistent with those of Forney and Rabolt (1985-1986); consumers who showed greater strength of ethnic identification also reported owning more ethnic-inspired contemporary apparel than their counterparts with weaker ethnic identification.
Based on the preceding discussion the following hypothesis was developed for this study:
H1. Consumers' strength of ethnic identification will predict their consumption of cultural (ethnic or ethnic-inspired) apparel.
Ethnic identity and self-perceptions linked to cultural apparel consumption
Ethnic consumer's internal motivations and attributions related to the consumption of cultural products is a topic that has received little attention in past consumer research. In a qualitative study using semi-structured interviews, O'Neal (1999) examined African American professional women's motivations for the use of ethnic dress as professional attire in the workplace. The interview data from this study generated the following themes:
- cultural dress was an expression and definition of the self;
- cultural dress helped in educating others about the African culture; and
- cultural dress served to link them to their heritage.
In the context of defining the self through cultural dress, the study articulates that among African American professional women cultural dress represents a dilemma for the dual selves, “a sense of being neither fully American nor fully African” (p. 390). According to O'Neal, participants' choice of defining their “self” through cultural symbols in dress, rather than conforming to the appropriate attire at the workplace, suggests its significance to their self-definition.
Kim and Arthur (2003) studied Asian American consumers' attitudes toward ethnic apparel by investigating if the consumers used it as a sign of pride in their heritage, and if they were likely to wear it on different occasions. The researchers found that individuals who identified more strongly with their ethnic identities, also held more positive attitudes toward cultural apparel products. Based on the preceding discussion, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H2. Consumers' strength of ethnic identification will predict the extent to which they attribute positively/negatively valenced internal emotions to the consumption of cultural apparel.
H3. Consumers' strength of ethnic identification will predict the extent to which they attribute positively/negatively valenced internal meanings to the consumption of cultural apparel.
Theoretical framework
Self-perception theory developed by Bem (1967), has been applied in this study to propose the mechanism through which consumers' strength of ethnic identification affects their internal attributions associated with the consumption of culturally related products. The theory postulates that individuals infer their internal states including their attitudes and emotions by observing their own overt behavior and/or the context of their behavior (Bem, 1972). The theory also posits that individuals make inferences about themselves, just as they would make inferences about other individuals, through external cues such as behavior. This second postulate connects self-perception and interpersonal perception, and generally applies when the internal cues of the individual are ambivalent or not inferable (Bem, 1972). Although, behaviorist theories have been criticized for their limited view of inferences based on overt behavior only, Bem argues that self-perception theory goes beyond these inferences and includes self-attributions based on circumstances in which the behavior occurs. Another point that Bem (1972) emphasizes is that individuals make self-attributions based on their own behavior if and only if their behavior is freely chosen.
In this study, participant's use of ethnic or ethnic-inspired apparel is viewed as constituting their overt self-reported behavior. Based on self-perception theory, participants' internal attributions regarding their emotions and meanings related to cultural apparel consumption will be a function of their self-reported behavior. Hence, based on the propositions of self-perception theory, the following hypotheses can be proposed to explain the effect of consumers' strength of ethnic identification on their attribution of emotions and meanings associated with the consumption of culturally related products (Figure 1):
H4a. Cultural apparel consumption will predict the extent to which to consumers attribute positively/negatively valenced internal emotions to the consumption.
H4b. Cultural apparel consumption will mediate the effect of strength of ethnic identification on consumers' internal attributions of emotions to the consumption of cultural apparel.
H5a. Cultural apparel consumption will predict the extent to which to consumers attribute positively/negatively valenced internal meanings to the consumption.
H5b. Cultural apparel consumption will mediate the effect of strength of ethnic identification on consumers' internal attributions of meanings to the consumption of cultural apparel.
Method
Sample and data collection
The study employed a convenience sample of 106 male and female students belonging to minority ethnic groups, who were enrolled at a large Midwestern University. The participants were recruited through emails sent to ethnic student organization listservs (accessed through the multicultural center at the university); as well as graduate and undergraduate classes in the consumer science department. Based on the recruiting e-mail, students who volunteered to participate in the survey, answered a self-administered online questionnaire (accessed through the web address specified in the e-mail) containing 42 questions. Prior to data collection, the Institutional Review Board approved this protocol for the study of human subjects.
Measures
Ethnic identity scale
Several measures of ethnic identity (Forney, 1981; Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986; Kang and Kim, 1998; Kim and Arthur, 2003; Oyserman and Sakamoto, 1997; Phinney, 1992) were reviewed prior to the selection of the measure for this study. Ethnic identity measures used by some researchers (Kim and Arthur, 2003; Oyserman and Sakamoto, 1997) were developed and tested specifically on the Asian American group. Since their validity and applicability to other groups have not been tested, they were not chosen for the purpose of this study.
The ethnic identity measure used in this study was adapted from Phinney's (1992) multigroup ethnic identity measure (MEIM), which has a reliability (assessed by Cronbach's α) of 0.81 for a high-school sample and 0.90 for a college sample. A five-point Likert scale (5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree) was used to rate 21 items consisting of elements such as: attitude towards one's group; a sense of belonging to the group; ethnic behaviors and practices; and ethnic identity achievement. In scoring the measure, a total score could be obtained by summing across 14 items in the ethnic identity subscale.
The MEIM does not include behavioral parameters such as ethnic language use, which may have varying significance relative to different groups (Phinney, 1992). This argument is supported by Kim and Arthur's (2003, p. 15) observations of the usefulness of attitudinal measures of ethnic identification versus language use measures in predicting consumer behavior toward ethnic apparel:
[…] whether or not the Asian Americans speak their ethnic language did not predict much about their shopping behavior, but their feelings toward and sense of belonging to their ethnic group were clearly reflected in what they believed important in shopping for clothing.
Cultural apparel consumption scale
This construct was measured through participants' self-reports of their usage of ethnic and ethnic-inspired apparel. Prior to this measure, comprehensive textual definitions of ethnic and ethnic inspired items of dress were provided in order to clarify their meaning. The use of visual stimuli was not considered suitable for these definitions, since they might not meet everyone's ideal or exemplar of ethnic or ethnic-inspired dress, and might be interpreted in a very narrow sense. Following the definitions, four items, some of which were adapted from previous research (Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986; Kim and Arthur, 2003), measured:
- how often they wore items of ethnic/ethnic-inspired dress; and
- how often they used them in casual wear, ethnic celebrations/festivals, and non-ethnic special occasions.
These items were measured on a five-point Likert-type scale (very often = 5, never = 1).
Attributions of emotions and meanings scales
This study differentiated between two aspects of self-perception, attributions of internal emotions and attributions of internal meaning. The measure of internal emotions tapped into an automatic (without conscious effort), affective response that participants experienced when wearing ethnic or ethnic-inspired dress; whereas, the measure of internal meanings tapped into deliberative (with conscious effort), cognitive thoughts and evaluations related to the use of ethnic or ethnic-inspired dress. Five items, some of which were adapted from the Rosenberg (1965) self-esteem scale measured the participants' attributions of internal emotions including confidence, self-esteem, self-satisfaction, and positive self-attitude, experienced through the usage of ethnic or ethnic-inspired dress. These items were measured on a five-point Likert scale (5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree). The first item among these was an open-ended question regarding the emotions experienced by the subjects, when wearing ethnic or ethnic-inspired items of dress.
Attributions of internal meanings were measured through seven items, developed by the researcher. These items were rated on a five-point Likert scale (5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree) and included cognitive evaluations such as feeling of “oneness” with the inner self; feeling “connected” to the ethnic background; feeling “comfortable” in the clothing; “fitting in” with the clothing; feeling “completeness;” “consistency” of clothing with inner self, beliefs, values and worldview. Similar to the earlier section, an open-ended question about the internal meanings attributed by the subjects was included prior to these items.
Demographic data
Demographic characteristics of the participants including their age, educational level, sex and ethnicity were also assessed using closed-ended items. Information regarding how many ethnic or ethnic-inspired items of dress the participants owned was also measured (in ranges: 0-4 items = 1; 5-9 items = 2; 10-14 items = 3; 15 items or above = 4).
Data analysis and results
Preliminary analyses
Sample characteristics
Four ethnic groups were represented in the sample for this study. These included Asian or Asian American (55.7 percent); Black or African American (20.8 percent); Hispanic or Latino (5.7 percent); American Indian (1.9 percent); and others, chiefly biracial (16 percent). The mean age of the participants was approximately 25 years. A majority (77.4 percent) of the participants was female, and 22.6 percent were male. Occupationally, 55.7 percent were undergraduate students; 27.4 percent were graduate students; and 16 percent were working professionals. Of the participants, 69.8 percent reported owning cultural apparel, and 29.2 percent reported that they did not own any cultural apparel. Further, 67 percent of the participants reported using cultural apparel in casual wear, 79 percent reported using cultural apparel for ethnic celebrations and festivals, and 64.8 percent reported using cultural apparel for non-ethnic special occasions.
Reliability analysis
All measures used in this study had adequate reliability determined by the Cronbach's α coefficient for internal consistency. The ethnic identity subscale consisting of 14 items from 21 items (in the MEIM), demonstrated a reliability of 0.874 (N=105) in the sample for this study. The four-item “cultural apparel consumption” scale demonstrated a reliability of 0.904 (N=104). Similarly, the four-item “attribution of emotions” scale demonstrated a high reliability of 0.958 (N=104) and the six-item “attribution of meanings” scale had an adequate reliability of 0.87 (N=103).
Hypothesis testing
The data were quantitatively analyzed using the statistical software program Statistical Package for Social Science (Version 14.0). Items with a negative valence were first reverse coded. Subsequently, composite variables were created by averaging item scores for each of the following scales: ethnic identity; cultural apparel consumption; attribution of internal emotions; and attribution of internal meanings. Descriptive statistics for the above composite variable scales are provided in Table I.
Ethnic identity as predictor of cultural apparel consumption and self-attributions
Three simple regression analyses with strength of ethnic identification as the independent variable, and cultural apparel consumption, attribution of emotions, and attribution of meanings as the dependent variables were conducted to test H1, H2 and H3, respectively. The simple regression analyses revealed that strength of ethnic identification was significant (p<0.01) in predicting cultural apparel consumption (F(1,101)=18.402, p=0.000, b=0.393, Adj. R 2=14.6 percent); attribution of internal emotions (F(1,101)=10.821, p=0.001, b=0.311, R 2=8.8 percent); and attribution of internal meanings (F(1,100)=26.485, p=0.000, b=0.458, R 2=20.1 percent).
In other words, strength of ethnic identification had a significant positive relationship with ethnic consumers' consumption of cultural apparel, with consumers' higher in strength of ethnic identification demonstrating higher consumption of cultural apparel, and vice versa. Hence, H1 was supported. Similarly, strength of ethnic identification had a significant positive relationship with attribution of internal emotions and meanings. Consumers with higher strength of ethnic identification attributed more positively valenced emotions and meanings to the consumption of cultural apparel (and vice versa), thus supporting H2 and H3.
Cultural apparel consumption as a predictor of self-attributions
Two simple regression analyses with cultural apparel consumption as the independent variable, and attribution of emotions, and attribution of meanings as the dependent variables were conducted to test H4a and H5a, respectively. The simple regression analyses revealed that cultural apparel consumption was significant (p<0.01) in predicting attribution of internal emotions (F(1,100)=33.1, p=0.000, b=0.499, Adj. R 2=24.1 percent); and attribution of internal meanings (F(1,101)=20.969, p=0.000, b=0.415, R 2=16.4 percent).
In other words, the extent of cultural apparel consumption had a significant positive relationship with ethnic consumers' attribution of internal emotions and meanings to this usage. Greater consumption of cultural apparel was associated with attributing more positively valenced emotions and meanings to the usage of such as apparel, and vice versa. Hence, H4a and H5a were supported.
Cultural apparel consumption as a mediator
H4b and H5b proposed that the extent of cultural apparel consumption will mediate the effect of strength of ethnic identification on consumers' attributions of emotions and meanings. This proposed mediating relationship was tested using Baron and Kenny's (1986) three conditions test. The first condition states that the independent variable should significantly influence the mediator. This condition is met through the support of H1. The independent variable, strength of ethnic identification was significant in predicting the mediator, consumption of cultural apparel (F(1,101)=18.402, p=0.000, b=0.393). The second condition states that the independent variable should have a significant influence on the dependent variable. This condition is met through the support of H2 and H3. The independent variable, strength of ethnic identification was significant in predicting the dependent variables, attribution of internal emotions (F(1,101)=10.821, p=0.001, b=0.311) and attribution of internal meanings (F(1,100)=26.485, p=0.000, b=0.458).
The third condition states that when the mediating variable is introduced into the regression equation, then perfect mediation is demonstrated when the influence of the mediator is significant, whereas, the influence of the independent variable reduces to non-significance (Baron and Kenny, 1986). Partial mediation is demonstrated when the influence of the mediator is significant, however, the influence of the independent variable remains significant, but reduces in size. Two multiple regression analyses (one for each dependent variable) were performed with strength of ethnic identification and consumption of cultural apparel as the independent variables, and attribution of internal emotions and meanings as the dependent variables to test the third condition.
The first multiple regression analysis with internal emotions as the dependent variable revealed that the influence of the independent variable, strength of ethnic identification reduced to non-significance (b=0.143, p=0.134), whereas the influence of the mediating variable remained significant (b=0.438, p=0.000). Hence, consumption of cultural apparel perfectly mediates the influence of strength of ethnic identification on the attribution of internal emotions to the usage of cultural apparel. Thus, H4b is supported. The second multiple regression analysis with internal meanings as the dependent variable revealed that the influence of the independent variable, strength of ethnic identification reduced in size from (b=0.458, p=0.000) to (b=0.297, p=0.001) when the mediator, consumption of cultural apparel was introduced in the regression equation and continued to have a significant influence (b=0.434, p=0.000). This demonstrates that consumption of cultural apparel partially mediates the relationship between strength of ethnic identification and the attribution of internal meanings to the usage of cultural apparel. Hence, H5b is partially supported.
Discussion
The broad purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between ethnic identity, consumption of cultural apparel and self-attributions of emotions and meanings among consumers belonging to ethnic subcultures in the USA. Based on the review of literature, it was hypothesized that the construct of strength of ethnic identification will predict the consumption of cultural apparel among ethnic consumers (H1) and the extent to which they attribute positively/negatively valenced internal emotions and meanings to this consumption (H2 and H3). The results of this study revealed support for these hypotheses.
The support of H1 is consistent with the results of other studies which have found that consumers' strength of ethnic identification significantly influences their consumption of ethnic and ethnic-inspired apparel (Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986; Kim and Arthur, 2003), ethnic foods and drinks (Chung and Fischer, 1999; Laroche et al., 1998; Xu et al., 2004), and other ethnic products such as movies and music (Xu et al., 2004). The significant positive relationship between strength of ethnic identification and consumption of cultural apparel is also consistent with the directional effects that have been found in previous studies, where higher levels of ethnic identification have correlated with increased consumption of ethnic foods (Laroche et al., 1998; Xu et al., 2004), traditional ethnic dress (Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986) and ethnic-inspired contemporary apparel (Kim and Arthur, 2003). Hence, this study reinforces that the construct of strength of ethnic identification is a significant predictor of culturally-related consumption patterns of ethnic consumers; and provides further empirical evidence that the construct is also useful in predicting ethnic consumers' attributional responses associated with culturally-related consumption.
Based on the self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), this study hypothesized that the consumption of cultural apparel will directly predict consumers' attributions of emotions and meanings to culturally-related consumption (H4a and H5a). The support of these hypotheses demonstrates that the findings are consistent with the self-perception theory. Further, the study also proposed that consumption of cultural apparel will mediate the influence of strength of ethnic identification on the attributional responses of ethnic consumers (H4b and H5b). The test of mediation revealed that consumption of cultural apparel perfectly mediates the influence of strength of ethnic identification on consumers' attributions of emotions to culturally-related consumption; and partially mediates this influence on consumers' attributions of meanings. This finding has important implications that are discussed in the subsequent section.
Implications
As revealed through the review of literature, few studies have examined the attributional responses of ethnic consumers, and the meanings and motivations related to their consumption of cultural products. This understanding provides valuable insights that can direct and channel product development, merchandising and marketing efforts to better meet the emotional needs and preferences of these consumers. However, it is important to mention that the sample used in this study does not consist of a representative sample drawn randomly from ethnic students enrolled at the university. Hence, caution should be applied in extending the results based on this sample to other populations.
This research has revealed that the consumers' strength of ethnic identification influences their consumption of cultural apparel, and their attributions of internal emotions and meanings to this usage. Previous research has partly supported this finding in different geographical locations such as the San Francisco Bay Area (Forney and Rabolt, 1985-1986) and Hawaii (Kim and Arthur, 2003), both of which reflect areas where ethnic groups tend to concentrate. In the current study, the participants represented students at a Midwestern University, which demonstrates that the influence of strength of ethnic identification as a predictor of consumption patterns of ethnic consumers is not restricted to areas of ethnic group concentration.
A recent qualitative study conducted among Scottish-Americans (Crane et al., 2004) revealed an interesting finding with respect to the influence of strength of ethnic identification on consumption of cultural apparel. In this study, the role of dress in self-symbolizing ethnic identity increased with greater salience of the Scottish identity; however, this role diminished with increased feelings of completeness in the Scottish identity. This finding suggests that the extent of completeness experienced by an individual with respect to ethnic identity may moderate the influence of strength of ethnic identification on consumption of cultural apparel. While some of the findings of the interview-based study are consistent with the current results, further research is needed to examine the moderating influence of sense of completeness in ethnic identity.
The current study also demonstrated that consumption of cultural apparel mediates (perfectly and partially) the influence of ethnic identification on consumers' attributional responses. This empirical finding in a convenience sample of college students is of value to retailers since it could provide an alternative mechanism for predicting consumer responses to cultural products based on past consumption patterns for such products, since data regarding consumers' strength of ethnic identification may not be easily available. However, further research is needed to validate this finding in a larger representative sample of consumers. Future research could also benefit by investigating whether the consumption of a specific cultural product category predicts attributional responses toward other cultural product categories. For example, does consumption of cultural apparel predict consumer attributions associated with the consumption ethnic foods or vice versa? Answers to these questions can help retailers in predicting consumer response toward new cultural products by using data on patterns of consumption for existing cultural products.
The sample in this study scored high in ethnic identity, attribution of internal meanings and internal emotions, but was at the midpoint of the scale on consumption of ethnic apparel. This fact could suggest that there is an untapped market for cultural apparel that may be important for product developers and retailers to consider. The results of this study also revealed that consumption of cultural apparel is greater during ethnic celebrations, as compared to casual occasions and non-ethnic special occasions. This finding could have implications for new product development efforts targeting ethnic consumers. Currently retailers such as JCPenney stock jewelry and other products that cater to specific Hispanic celebrations, such as “Quinceañeras.” Retailers may also benefit by directing such efforts to other ethnic subcultures based on the ethnic composition of the neighborhood. Further, festival promotions, gift coupons and discounts can also be used to attract consumers' attention to such retail offerings during specific festivals.
Beyond these practical implications, this study also offers important implications related to the symbolic function of clothing consumption in an increasingly multicultural society. In a consumption-oriented historical account of Jewish acculturation, Heinze (1990) articulates that consumption of goods serves the important function of bridging gaps between cultures, contributing toward the construction of meaningful cultural identities. His narrative emphasized the role of consumption, particularly the adoption of mainstream American consumption patterns in the immigrant acculturation process, a theme that has received increasing attention in subsequent works (Penaloza, 1994; Oswald, 1999). Oswald examined the complicated nature of symbolic consumption among Haitian immigrants in the USA and its impact on the construction of the Haitian-American identity. According to the author, this identity is an unstable construct that necessitates the process of “culture swapping,” wherein the semiotic consumption of goods associated with both “home and host cultures,” plays a significant role in identity formation and negotiation. This symbolic consumption often externalizes overlapping cultural contexts and group memberships, and illustrates the concept of “straddling the boundaries between several cultures at once” (Oswald, p. 311). Consumption of ethnic-inspired contemporary apparel represents an example of such a negotiation.
Cultural products such as apparel have also been found to resonate with the US mainstream consumer segment, called “cultural creatives” (Littrell and Dickson, 1999; Ray and Anderson, 2000). Cultural creatives constitute one-fourth of US adults and are mostly college-educated women (60 percent) who are in their 40s (Ray and Anderson). They are also globally concerned consumers who value the integrity and authenticity of cultural products (Ray and Anderson). While this consumer segment prefers culture-specific apparel, researchers have also identified another segment with preferences for pancultural apparel, integrating aesthetic elements from multiple cultures (Littrell et al., 1999). Future research needs to be conducted to comparatively examine the self-attributions of emotions and meanings in wearing culture-specific and pancultural apparel among both mainstream and ethnic consumers.
Figure 1Model for hypothesized relationships
Table IDescriptive statistics for composite scale variables
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Corresponding author
Veena Chattaraman can be contacted at: vchattaraman@auburn.edu