Being migrant or nomadic or refugee in the Nusantara

3.1 Contextual analysis

According to Merriam Webster’s dictionary, “migrate” is “to move from one country, place, or locality to another” (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2021). While “migrant” is “a person who moves regularly to find work, especially in harvesting crops,” “nomadic” is “of, relating to, or characteristic of nomads,” and “refugee” is “a person who flees to a foreign country or power to escape danger or persecution” (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2021). Oxford Learner Dictionary (2021) describes “migrate” as “to move from one town, country, etc. to go and live and work in another”; “migrant” is defined as “a person who moves from one place to another to find work or better living conditions”; “nomadic” is “belonging to a community that moves with its animals from place to place”; and “refugee” is “a person who has been forced to leave their country or home because there is a war or for political, religious or social reasons” (Oxford Learner Dictionary, 2021). Etymologically, “migrate” is derived from the Latin words “migrates” and “migrare,” which means “to move from one place to another” and it might come from “migwros” or “meigw-“ which is an extended form of “mei-“ means “to change, go, move” (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2021). “Mei-“ is rooted in Proto-Indo-European meaning and refers to the exchange of goods and services within a society as regulated by custom or law.

After Second World War, Europe and America emerged as significant migration destinations. From 1945 to the 1970s, Europe magnetised many migrant workers from the Middle East and Mediterranean regions (Castles & De Haas & Miller, 2014, p. 103). Over time, the Western migration system became the dominant migration perspective worldwide. According to this mentality, migrants are seen as development pioneers (Castles, De Haas & Miller, 2014, pp. 79-80). Modernisation theories approached the development as instilling a project of Western values and norms to the non-Western world. Neoliberal ideologies perceived those migrants as essential elements of development for cheap labour. The main priority was always economic benefits and a needs-based approach.

On the other hand, migration in Southeast Asia has a long history and quite common (Husin Ali, 2018). Southeast Asia people often experience human mobilisations in the region. Circular migration is quite customary among Malays (Hadi, 1981). These continuous migration flows provided significant cultural interactions. The major trade ports, such as Melaka Straits, have become a cross-cultural exchange for centuries in Southeast Asia (Hussin, 2008). The region’s diverse historical heritage and cultural intercourses caused different conceptualisations in migration-related terms.

3.2 Textual analysis

According to the Malay Literary Reference Center (Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu), “pendatang” (migrant) means “people who come,” “foreigners who come to, or enter another country” (orang mendatang, orang asing yang datang ke, atau memasuki sesebuah negeri lain) (Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, 2021). “Nomad” means groups of people who travel from one location to another to find grazing land and nourishment (suku kaum yang berpindah-pindah dari satu tempat ke tempat lain untuk mencari padang ternak, makanan), and the second meaning of “nomad” is individuals who enjoy relocating or travelling to different locations (orang yang suka berpindah dari satu tempat ke tempat lain) (Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, 2021). “Pelarian” (refugee) means “escaping, fleeing, running fast” (perihal berlari dengan cepat), and the second meaning of “pelarian” is “a person who runs away, a refugee” (orang yang melarikan diri, pengungsi) (Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, 2021). “Berhijrah” (migrate) refers to “the act of relocating or departing from one location to another: the young people in the village must move away and go to the city to find a better livelihood” (berpindah, meninggalkan sesuatu tempat untuk pergi ke tempat lain: pemuda-pemuda di kampung terpaksa ke bandar untuk mencari rezeki yang lebih baik) (Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, 2021). In general, when we examine migration terminology in Bahasa Melayu, it is clear that there isn’t much difference with the meaning given in Oxford or Merriam Webster’s Dictionary. However, “berhijrah” had been intentionally chosen due to the Arabic “hijr-“ root. It shows the effect of Islamisation of concepts in Bahasa Melayu (Al-Attas, 1969). Al-Attas highlights the transformation of the Malay language in the Malay Archipelago through the influence of Islam. He specifically focuses on the process of Arabisation, exemplified through shifts in the names of weekdays, naming preferences among Muslim Malays, the growing prevalence of Arabic usage in Malay society, and the integration of Arab communities within Malay society (Kamaruzaman et al., 2016, p. 6). These Arabisation and Islamisation also affected the concepts. The Arabic-based “berhijrah” term normalises in the social world as its Islamic connotation.

Furthermore, the Malay Literary Reference Center’s definition of forcing young men to migrate also might be interpreted as a social reality in Malays. When we look at the Malay Annals, which was originally titled Sulalatus Salatin, the authoritative rendition of historical literature encompassing Malay myths and history, it reveals an absence of migration-associated concepts such as “pendatang, nomad, pengungsi, and berhijrah.” The term “pelarian” surfaces just once within the text, denoting a particular location rather than indicating refugees (Ahmad, 2008, p. 33). Following the 19th century, the interaction of colonial powers with the area brought about significant changes in societal, cultural and intellectual aspects. British colonisers created numerous dictionaries and historical works concerning this region. However, the works of Nicholas Dennys in 1894 titled “A Descriptive Dictionary of British Malaya,” John Crawfurd's “A Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language with A Preliminary Dissertation” from 1852, and Hugh Clifford and Frank Athelstane Sweetenham's “A Dictionary of the Malay Language” from 1894, lack the inclusion of concepts such as “pendatang,” “ pelarian,” “nomad,” “pengungsi” and “berhijrah.” Notably, the terms “migrate” and “migration,” denoting the act of moving to another location (“pindah” and “pindahan”) are referred to in Crawfurd's work (1852, p. 114).

In the Great Indonesia Dictionary (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia), “migran” (migrant) means people or animals who migrate (orang atau hewan yang melakukan migrasi) (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, 2021). “Migrasi” (migrate) means movement of people from one place (country and so on) to another place (country and so on) to settle (perpindahan penduduk dari satu tempat [negara dan sebagainya] ke tempat [negara dan sebagainya] lain untuk menetap) (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, 2021). “Pengembara” (nomadic) means moving or travelling person (orang yang mengembara) (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, 2021). “Pengungsi” (refugee) means displaced or fled person (orang yang mengungsi) (Kamur Besar Bahasa Indonesia, 2021). Bahasa Indonesia uses Latin-rooted terms for “migrant” (migran) and “migrate” (migrasi). Bahasa Indonesia does not only take words from English, Bahasa Melayu or Arabic but also from local languages such as Javanese, Minangkabau, Sundanese and Madurese (Liputan6, 2018). Moreover, Bahasa Indonesia usually uses euphemisms for polite usage. “Pelarian” has a negative meaning as a fugitive or runaway, so it used “pengungsi” in Bahasa Indonesia. The difference between the words “pelarian” and “pengungsi” is actually very strong. “Pelarian” means the perpetrator’s active choice, while “pengungsi” refers to use of force. From a cultural point of view, this choice shows a nuance. The largest Bahasa Indonesia speakers are Javanese people who are not used to migrate and move to other places as the central position of Java. Javanese people view displacement of their own volition like escaping as a negative concept. Migration can only happen when the situation requires urgent attention such as for the sake of life security or civil conflict. Therefore “pengungsi” is a nuanced term.

3.3 Power relations and ideologies

Migration-related concepts are also inclusively related to Islamic concepts. “Pengembara” is directly associated with Islamic Sufi tradition as “suluk” in Java. Sufi practices of “pengembara” have a special place in Javanese culture. Mystic synthesis in Java between Sufi tradition and Hinduism is quite strong (Ricklefs, 2012, p. 9), and spiritual journeys are important in both cultures. We can trace this tradition in Java culture and in the Minangkabau tradition, as the “suluk” concept. Mainly, indigenising and syncretising Islam with Javanese culture caused mystic synthesis (Mulkhan, 2000). It’s common to travel (kembara) for murid (student), who will fulfil its spiritual teaching in Islamic mystic tariqas. “Suluk” also means “to enter the road, to walk on the road, to penetrate (something) into something else, to join, to transfer” in Sufism. “Suluk” is more comprehensive than the concepts of Islamic mystic tariqah and sects, which mean “way” and have similar connotations in terminology. Suluk referred to wide usage in the early Sufi classics, covering all the verbs related to religious life, but after the tariqa, which is the Muslim spiritual path toward direct knowledge of God or truth in the 12th century, it gained the meaning of “practising certain mystical manners and principles in the way of reaching the truth” (Almath, 1996). In Java, there is the practice of “suluk” or “laku suluk.” The subject of the wisdom is the aspirant to purify the soul from the dirt of the world, correct and beautify one’s morals to gain the ability to reach the Truth, and its purpose is to know oneself and his creator (Almath, 1996). It may involve “kembara,” just staying in the cave, or avoiding mundane and worldly life as an inner journey. “Pengembara” has its unique meaning set and it is an indigenous concept in Nusantara.

Another cultural nuance between Bahasa Indonesia and Bahasa Melayu is the cultural position of language. Bahasa Indonesia, the origin of Bahasa Melayu, particularly Riau-Johor Malay Sultanate, is a foreign language for Indonesians (Antaranews, 2019). Many Indonesians’ mother tongue, except those in urban areas, is the local language: Javanese for Javanese, Batak for Batak people (Nugroho, 1957). Language contacts are frequent in the region, and these cause cultural absorption, for local languages. Regional languages are crucial to comprehend local wisdom and concepts comprehensively. Regional languages also gain depth and enrich Bahasa Indonesia (Liputan6, 2018). Another cultural difference can be seen in the definition of “nomadic.” In Western culture, nomadic refers to characteristics and features of nomads and wandering peoples from place to place. However, according to Bahasa Melayu, “nomad” refers directly to a tribe and wandering community, particularly “Orang Laut” (sea folk). “Orang Laut” as sea nomads are entrenched with one of the tremendous cultural histories in Southeast Asia, the coasts of Borneo. So, nomadism and migration natively have existed in the region (Sopher, 1965).

3.4 Discursive strategies and tactics

Following Indonesia's independence, the establishment of a national language became a crucial endeavour to foster Indonesian national identity and awareness (Anderson, 1966, p. 90). During the colonial era, the Malay language was employed to enhance national cohesion and eliminate racial prejudice within the Volksraad, the colonial-era legislative institution of Indonesia (Rohmadi, Akhyar, & Warto, 2017). The formation of modern Indonesia was rooted in three distinct languages—Dutch, Javanese and revolutionary Malay—as well as two genuine linguistic and cultural heritages. Consequently, the Indonesian language emerged as a fusion amid these diverse linguistic and social elements, signifying a departure from established norms. This newly devised language introduced a cultural disruption within the indigenous Indonesian realm. It also represented a triumph in terms of national unity and paved the way for the restoration of Indonesian traditions and practices (Anderson, 1966).

The term “Transmigrasi” (transmigration) constitutes a pivotal concept in comprehending migration-related terminology within the Indonesian language. The concept of “Transmigrasi” aids in grasping the state's endeavour to establish an orderly society, organising the populace in a manner that simplifies key state functions such as taxation, conscription and rebellion prevention. The Transmigration programme, initiated during the Dutch colonial period and persisting after Indonesia gained independence, serves to address population distribution disparities, and foster economic progress across various regions of the country (Tirtosudarmo, 2021). Under this program, individuals from densely populated areas, notably Java and Bali, were relocated to less developed zones like Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua (Pratiwi, Matous, & Martinus, 2022). The government furnished transmigrants with land, housing and basic infrastructure in their new locales, aiming to motivate land cultivation and contribute to regional economic growth. However, the program has sparked controversy as concerns about “Javanization” and “Islamization” by native populations, which have fuelled separatist movements and communal unrest. It has also faced criticism for its negative impact on rainforests and wildlife, as well as the Java-centric Indonesian government's efforts to expand economic and political dominance by resettling individuals with strong ties to Java and loyalty to the state. Post-independence, the program was also employed for the re-socialisation of former guerilla fighters, prevention of attraction towards Islamic rebel groups and agricultural experimentation (Tirtosudarmo, 2021, p. 14). Indonesian governments operationalise transmigration as a form of social engineering for rural settlement and production. It serves as a biopolitical tool to manipulate and govern the population, continuing the historical trend of precolonial demographic control over land and people, albeit under different guises.

On the other hand, Arabisation and Islamisation of concepts in Bahasa Malaysia play important roles in Islamising the Malay community. Malaysia did not ratify Geneva Conventions on Refugees in 1951 and 1967 protocols, but unlike other ASEAN countries, Malaysia allowed the breaching of the border by Muslim Rohingya refugees in 2013 (Togoo & Ismail, 2021, p. 14). According to UNHCR Malaysia (2023), Malaysia has 181,500 refugees and asylum-seekers registered with UNHCR, and 105,760 of them are Rohingyas. Muslim Rohingyas with UNHCR cards show the strong narrative of Muslim unity and the importance of the global Muslim community (ummah) discourse in Malaysia. Rohingyas believe in the strong connection with the Malay community that develops when they regularly participate in prayers at the nearby mosques (Togoo & Ismail, 2021, p. 15). These Muslim solidarity discourses are also utilised by political actors and former Prime Minister Najib Razak hold a rally under the name of ummah meeting to get Malay-Muslim support, and the Rohingya refugee issues became a religious-political tool for Malaysian politics (Hutt, 2016).

3.5 Conclusion

The history of Southeast Asia demonstrates the inevitability of migration flows in the region. It acknowledges the role of trade diasporas, immigrant cultures and multi-ethnicity in shaping these concepts, which can also reflect cultural dominance and exclusions. This research emphasises that migration dynamics in Southeast Asia are deeply rooted in local wisdom and cultural codifications.

In the Bauman sense of modernity, there is a tendency to blur the distinctions between different things or people, making them appear more similar. Western paradigms dominate migration-related research, but the Global South, Third World or Developing World has their own cultural nuances and migration conceptualisations rooted in their social realities. In the context of Southeast Asia, while colonialist concepts still influence today's terminology in the region, cultural exchange through trade ports and historical legacies has also shaped the conceptualisations of migration-related terms. Arabic-based terms like “berhijrah” in Bahasa Melayu reflect the influence of Islamisation and Arabisation in the language. The term “pengembara” in Bahasa Indonesia also highlights an indigenous concept rooted in Islamic Sufi tradition, representing a distinct local discourse.

This conceptual analysis provides power relations and ideologies embedded in migration-related concepts. The concept of “Transmigrasi” in Indonesia illustrates how migration policies can serve as tools for state control, economic development and social engineering. Looking at the history of the concepts also explores the intersection of migration, politics and religion in the context of Muslim Rohingya refugees in Malaysia, demonstrating how Islamic solidarity narratives intersect with refugee politics. Migration-related terms play a crucial role in reflecting, shaping and challenging societal perceptions and structures. It shows that language evolves within the context of nation-building and how culture, religion and political agendas influence migration-related terms.

In the Nusantara region, social organisations and concepts are deeply connected to customs (adat) and local understandings. To assess the refugee protection mechanisms in these countries, it is essential to consider the local context, since neither Indonesia nor Malaysia are parties to the Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. Further ethnographic research examining local languages, codifications, and folklore can provide a more in-depth and sophisticated analysis in the future.