Guest editorial

Citation

Nkomo, S. and Zoogah, D.B. (2015), "Guest editorial", Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 30 No. 3. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2014-0310

Guest editorial

Article Type: Guest editorial From: Journal of Managerial Psychology, Volume 30, Issue 3.

Organization behavior in African organizations

This special section is about organizational behavior in the African context. It is becoming increasing evident that management knowledge and practice can advance the growth of not only businesses but also economic development in Africa (Acquaah et al. (2013); Kiggundu, 2013; Zoogah et al., in press). Africa’s population of over one billion makes it the second most populous continent on the planet after Asia which indicates it has significant human capital potential. Recent economic forecasts show that the continent’s rising presence in the global marketplace (Economist, 2013) depends not only on commodities and natural resources Chironga et al. (2011) but also its greatest untapped resource: people (Jackson, 2004). The cognitions, affects, and behavioral attributes of employees can facilitate creativity, innovation, and productivity within organizations. Research on how these psychological attributes contribute to organizational outcomes is significant not only because of the policy and practical implications but also the potential theoretical contribution to organization behavior knowledge.

Existing research suggests managing people in Africa is strongly influenced by endogenous and exogenous factors (e.g. Muchiri, 2011; Ituma and Simpson, 2009). Endogenous factors include socio-economic factors, culture, demographics, the growing influence of multinationals seeking new ventures and markets on the continent. Exogenous factors on the other hand include trade between Brazil, Russia, India, and China which has risen to over $200 billion in recent years. China, for example, views Africa as the key to its global rise and is investing heavily in the continent (Alden et al., 2008; Cheung et al., 2012; Tull, 2006). Some have begun to wonder about the influence China will have on the management of people as it establishes businesses and trade across the continent (Jackson, 2012; Tull, 2006).

Despite the obvious relevance of research for understanding the behavioral and management implications of Africa’s emerging place in the global economy, there is a scarcity of published research. A recent review found a number of articles on micro issues in Africa. However, although the topics ranged from job satisfaction to diversity, there was insufficient depth in most to warrant meaningful conclusions (Zoogah and Nkomo, 2013). There is an urgent need for additional research based on insight into the challenges and issues managers encounter in mobilizing the talent of the continent’s workforce (Kamoche, 2011). Africa’s diversity in terms of socio-economic status and culture suggests the complexity and potential range of pertinent micro organization behavior and psychological research needing scholarly exploration.

One obvious area is the influence of culture. Cultural values and traditions account for differences in the attitudes and behaviors of workers and managers (Hofstede, 2001). In contrast to the largely individualistic cultures of developed nations, researchers have pointed to Africa’s collectivist values and humane orientation House et al. (2004).

Furthermore, research on the demographic characteristics of the continent is likely to yield meaningful insight. The informal economic activities and migration patterns in Africa suggest a growing movement of people from traditionally rural areas to large urban centers. A large proportion of the African labor force is employed in unskilled or semi-skilled jobs with increasing representation in management; while a significant number also subsist through informal economic activities (Godfrey, 2011). Low wages and high unemployment in some countries combine with strong extended family values to place a strain upon African employees far beyond the typical nuclear family understanding of work-family conflict (Aryee, 2005).

Africa’s significant youth population (14 of the 15 of countries with the youngest populations in the world are in Africa), represents a demographic trend that has significant implications for understanding worker psychology, generational effects in perceptions and behaviors. Research also suggests that in many African nations organizational and people management still reflect some of the autocratic and highly bureaucratic management practices established during colonial rule (Kiggundu, 2013). Most post-colonial nations in Africa are still trying to find effective ways of managing, motivating and developing a workforce to realize the continent’s economic and social potential (Nkomo, 2011). Thus, there are numerous topics within organizational behavior that require exploration in Africa.

Figure 1 summarizes the desiderata of the special section. Briefly, we wanted studies that used the African context as a basis to examine behavior and human capital attributes in organizations and how those two, either independently or interactively, influence organizational outcomes and employee affective reactions. The African cultural context refers to the nominal features – traditional and modern – of Africa. Rural and urban spaces exemplify these two features (Zoogah and Beugré, 2012). The duality of context is in line with the dual authority and mixed governance view of African states, where national and ethnic institutions and policies coexist, sometimes in harmony and other times in conflict (Herbst, 2000; Michalopoulos, in press; Sklar, 1993). Mamdani (1996) observed that since colonization, Africa has had a modern system originating in the colonial state and a customary one, rooted at the ethnic level, a view that is emphasized by the earlier “dual” economy paradigm of Lewis (1954), who argued that developing countries are characterized by an “advanced” sector – usually associated with manufacturing and urbanization – and a “less advanced” sector – typically associated with communal property rights in agriculture (i.e. the rural sector). The dual context suggests that economic activities are influenced differentially due to different institutional, psychological, geo-physical, and socio-cultural systems.

Figure 1 Conceptual model of contextual effects of organizational behavior and human resource systems in Africa

Consistent with Johns (2006) and Rousseau and Fried (2001) who contend that context influences behavioral and human resource dynamics in organizations we believe the modern and rural contexts also impact the interactive dynamics of capabilities and behavioral systems within African organizations. Organizations in the urban areas are exposed to formalized economic, political, social, legal, and market institutions and tend to focus on industrial or manufacturing activities (Mbaku, 2004). Culture in the urban space may be a hybrid mixture of national culture and western and/or Asian cultural influences. Further, they are characterized by relative openness and individualistic tendencies, use of processed raw materials, and banking institutions that provide finance and credit (Collier, 2007). In that regard, the modern context is relatively similar to those in the West (Zoogah et al., in press).

In contrast, the traditional context is characterized by chieftaincy and council of elders, rurality, agrarian forms of living, and use of lineage inheritance (Mamdani, 1996; Zoogah et al., in press), autarkic markets, high volatility, strong ethnic identities (Michalopoulos, in press), and social institutions that revolve around the family. We also wanted studies that examine the effect of organizational outcomes on transformation of African societies. Given the reciprocal influence of environmental context and organizational systems (inputs, processes, and outcomes), we were open to studies that examined the effect of organizational outcomes, human capital attributes, and behaviors within urban and rural contexts. The double arrows emphasize this point. We believe a variety of studies can help to build a body of knowledge to better understand the human and managerial imperatives for Africa’s sustained development.

Figure 1 also illustrates how the African context affects human resource characteristics – capabilities of employees and organizations, practices, and policies of organizations (Neweham-Kahindi et al., 2013). The interactive processes of employee, firm, and societal attributes determine the human capital system within organizations which in turn influence firm effectiveness. Latent attributes such as positive self-image as well as manifest attributes related to indigenous skill sets can impact not only organizational outcomes but also increase social and productive well-being.

Context also influences perceptions, reactions, and actions of individuals, groups, and organizations discretely or interactively, the outcome of which are behavioral systems that impact organizational effectiveness. The interactive processes we envision encompass human resources attributes and organizational behavior that jointly influencing firm effectiveness. Positive behaviors such as strengths, virtues, transcendence, and shared mental models can also contribute to social transformation. Thus, both the human resources and organizational behavior paths enable us to inform existing theories or to develop new ones.

Papers in this special section

The papers in this section illustrate key elements of the model elaborated upon in the preceding paragraphs. They also provide a diverse perspective covering managerial and organizational behavior issues in West, East, North, and Southern Africa. Each of the papers demonstrates how context is significant to the research undertaken. Their descriptions illustrate why it is not advisable to homogenize the “African” context but rather to be attentive to the specific cultural, economic, and political differences among countries.

In the first paper, Human factor, justice and organizational effectiveness in Africa, Acquaah and Tukamushaba examine the concept of human factor and its relationship to perceptions of organization justice and organizational effectiveness in Uganda and Ghana. While a great deal of attention has been focused on strategies and programs for economic development in Africa, there has been relatively less empirical work on how to integrate the human factor as a key element of sustainable development and organizational effectiveness. In their study, human factor is operationalized as a composite of six dimensions: spiritual capital, moral capital, human capital, aesthetic capital, human abilities, and human potential. Perceptions of organization justice were hypothesized as an important moderator because of the high power distance feature of the cultures of both countries. Hierarchical differences based on age, gender, and authority are features of both societies. The authors’ research focussed on moral capital, human capital, and human abilities and found empirical support for the link between moral capital, human capital, and perceptions of organizational effectiveness and how perceptions of organization justice moderates this relationship in two sub-Saharan African workplaces. Results suggest managerial attention to moral capital can play a critical role in ameliorating counter-productive behaviors such as shirking, bribery, and corruption in organizations.

The next two papers are based on research conducted in Tunisia and Egypt. Both papers start with well-known OB models but extend them by introducing variables relevant to each country’s context. El Akremi and Vandenberghe, in their paper entitled Examining the frustration-aggression model among Tunisian blue-collar workers, examine the link between work stressors, perceived stress, emotional exhaustion, and workplace aggression. Two personal dispositions, negative affectivity and locus of control were used as moderators in testing the relationships. Their research was prompted by an actual incident of workplace aggression by Tunisian blue-collar workers in a subsidiary of a German multinational. Managers at the plant attributed the outburst to employee aggressive inclinations and the local climate of insecurity at the time. Findings were consistent with existing literature on linkages between stress and workplace aggression primarily done in the West.

However, they extend the existing body of knowledge by showing perceived stress fully mediated the relationship between role ambiguity and emotional exhaustion. Additionally, the results reflect the confluence of blue-collar worker characteristics and the confrontational nature of Tunisian culture. Even though the low economic status of blue-collar workers would suggest they should be reluctant to display workplace aggression, findings indicate that stress and emotional exhaustion facilitated aggressive behavior display. At the same time, the authors point out people from Arabic cultures in North Africa are more confrontational than Westerners in their relationships with others and this characteristic may explain why Tunisian blue-collar workers may engage in workplace aggression even if their emotional resources are affected by stress. Their results should sensitize managers to potential stressors, particularly quantitative workload and role ambiguity.

The paper, Psychological capital and job satisfaction in Egypt, by Badran and Youssef-Morgan also extends the research on psychological capital. The authors conceptualize and test its relevance to Egypt. Using a sample of 451 Egyptian employees in 11 organizations throughout the country, the authors found the four positive psychological resources of hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism as well as the integrated construct were related to job satisfaction. The results may appear to be unexpected because the research was conducted at a time when Egypt was facing severe political and economic turmoil. Psychological capital theory may be particularly relevant because of features of Egyptian culture. The authors point to previous research showing that Egyptians prioritize intrinsic over extrinsic values and that even though 20-30 percent of the population lives below the poverty line, agentic behavior, self-motivation, and high efficacy are evident. The authors suggest this positivity may be a source of human-based competitive advantage for the country. Interestingly, optimism had the lowest score of the four elements which again may reflect the level of uncertainty about the future of the country. Again, the results of the research point to the interaction between context and human capital attributes in understanding organization behavior dynamics on the continent.

The final paper by Dunne and Bosch, entitled Graduate identity development in South Africa: Misaligned warranting and the independent mediator, focusses on the identity transition challenges of young black South Africans as they enter corporate South Africa. Using a qualitative longitudinal design to track the participants in a year-long graduate development program, the authors identify the misunderstandings that hamper professional development identity during the first year of work. These misunderstandings are rooted in the cultural distance between the graduates and their predominately white managers. Both graduates and managers were often not equipped to deal with the cultural, racial, and geographic differences that emerged. The research also highlights the importance of an independent mediator who mediates these misunderstandings in an effort to support the identity work of the young graduates. Although the research is specific to the political and cultural context of South Africa where the integration of the previously oppressed population into managerial and professional ranks of companies has become a priority of the new government, it also suggests that employees can benefit from support during important workplace identity transitions. Much of the current literature on identity work focuses how the individual forms and negotiates the identity with much less on what managers and organizations can do to assist in these transitions, particularly those embedded in social identity.

To conclude, this special section explores various aspects of organization behavior in Africa. Collectively, the papers illustrate the diversity in context despite the research being conducted in the same continent. In our call, we expected studies that build on existing theories or developed new theories reflecting the unique and dynamic characteristics of the continent. All the papers tested existing theories and this has largely been the pattern of organization behavior and management research on Africa. Testing extant theories within a different context is an important means of surfacing a theory’s boundary conditions (Colquitt and Zapata-Phelan, 2007). However, there is also a need for indigenous research that includes inductive studies to surface novel concepts, relationships and processes suggested by the framework presented in Figure 1. Advancing knowledge about organization behavior in Africa requires a deep stream of research studies before comprehensive theorizing becomes a reality. We hope readers will enjoy this special section and that it will spur further research into organization behavior in an increasingly significant area of the world.

Stella Nkomo and David B. Zoogah

References

Acquaah, M., Zoogah, D.B. and Kwesiga, E.N. (2013), “Advancing Africa through management knowledge and practice: the way forward”, Management Studies, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 164-176

Alden, C., Large, D. and Soares de Oliveira, R. (Eds) (2008), China Returns to Africa, Christopher Hurst, London

Aryee, S. (2005), “The work-family interface in urban sub-Saharan Africa: a theoretical analysis”, in Poelmans, S.A.Y. (Ed.), Work and Family: An International Research Perspective, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 209-228

Cheung, Y.W., de Haan, J. Qian, X. and Shu, Y. (2012), “China’s outward direct investment in Africa”, Review of International Economics, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 201-220

Chironga, M., Leke, A., Lund, S. and Van Wamelen, A. (2011), “Cracking the next growth market: Africa”, Harvard Business Review, May, pp. 117-122

Collier, P. (2007), The Bottom Billion: Why The Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Colquitt, J.A. and Zapata-Phelan, C.P. (2007), “Trends in theory building and theory testing: a five-decade study of the academy of management journal”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 50 No. 6, pp. 1281-1303

Godfrey P. (2011), “Toward a theory of the informal economy”, The Academy of Management Annals, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 231-277

Herbst, J. (2000), States and Power in Africa, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

Hofstede, G.H. (2001), Culture’s Consequences, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA

House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. and Gupta, V. (Eds), (2004), Leadership, Culture, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA

Ituma, A. and Simpson, R. (2009), “The boundaryless’ career and career boundaries: applying an institutionalist perspective to ICT workers in the context of Africa”, Human Relations, Vol. 62 No. 5, pp. 727-761

Jackson, T. (2004), Management and Change in Africa: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, Routledge, London

Jackson, T. (2012), “Postcolonialism and organizational knowledge in the wake of China’s presence in Africa: interrogating south-south relations”, Organization: the Critical Journal of Organization, Theory and Society, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 181-204

Johns, G. (2006), “The essential impact of context on organizational behavior”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 386-408

Kamoche, K. (2011), “Contemporary developments in the management of human resources in Africa”, Journal of World Business, Vol. 46 No. 1, pp. 1-4

Kiggundu, M. (2013), “Personal reflections on African management: looking in, looking out and looking ahead”, African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 177-200

Lewis, A.W. (1954), “Economic development with unlimited supplies of labor”, The Manchester School, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 139-191

Mamdani, M. (1996), Citizen and Subject, James Currey, London

Mbaku, J.M. (2004), Institutions and Development in Africa, Africa World Press, Inc., Trenton, NJ

Michalopoulos, S. (in press), “On the ethnic origins of African development: traditional chiefs and pre-colonial political centralization”, Academy of Management Perspectives

Muchiri, M.K. (2011). “Leadership in context: a review and research agenda for sub-Saharan Africa”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 84 No. 2, pp. 440-452

Neweham-Kahindi, A., Kamoche, K.N., Chizema, A., and Mellahi, K. (2013), Effective people management in Africa, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire

Nkomo, S.M. (2011), “A postcolonial and anti-colonial reading of ‘African’ leadership and management in organization studies: tensions, contradictions and possibilities”, Organization, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 365-386

Rousseau, D.M. and Fried, Y. (2001), “Location, location, location: contextualizing organizational research”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 1-13

Sklar, R. (1993), “The African frontier in political economy”, in Baes, R.H., Mutimbe, V. and Barr, J.F. (Eds), Africa and the Disciplines, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp. 83-109

The Economist, (2013), “The world in 2013”, Economist Group, London.

Tull, D.M. (2006), “China’s engagement in Africa: scope, significance and consequences”, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 44 No. 3, pp. 459-479

Zoogah, D.B. and Beugré, C. (2012), Managing Organizational Behavior in the African context, Routledge, New York, NY

Zoogah, D.B. and Nkomo, S. (2013), “Management research in Africa: Past, present and future”, in Lituchy, T.R., Punnett, B.J. and Puplampu, B.B. (Eds), Management in Africa: Macro and micro perspectives, Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 9-13

Zoogah, D.B., Peng, M. and Woldu, H. (in press), “Institutions, resources, and organizational effectiveness in Africa”, Academy of Management Perspectives

Further reading

Zoogah, D.B. (2008), “African business research: a review of studies published in the journal of African business and a framework for enhancing future studies”, Journal of African Business, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 219-255

About the editors

Dr Stella Nkomo is a Professor in the Department of Human Resource Management at the University of Pretoria in South Africa. Her internationally recognized work on race and gender and managing diversity appears in numerous journals and edited volumes. She is the recipient of the 2009 Sage Scholarly Contributions Award for her pioneering contributions to gender and diversity research in organizations. She is currently an Associate Editor for the British Journal of Management and serves on the editorial board of several other journals in the field of management. In 2010, she received the Distinguished Woman Scholar in the Social Sciences Award from the Department of Science and Technology (South Africa). Most recently, she was elected President of the Africa of Academy of Management. Dr Stella Nkomo is corresponding author and can be contacted at: mailto:Stella.Nkomo@up.ac.za

Dr David B. Zoogah, Associate Professor of Management at the Earl Graves’ School of Business and Management, the Morgan State University researches on employee training and development, teams, strategic followership, and corporate environmental sustainability as well as Africa-centered management. He has published in several journals including the Journal of Applied Psychology and Academy of Management Perspectives. He has also presented conference papers at The Academy of Management, Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, and the Africa Academy of Management biennial conference. He is currently the Secretary of the Africa Academy of Management and a member of the Academy of Management, Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, and American Psychological Association. He is an Associate Editor of the Asia Pacific Journal of Management and the South African Journal of Human Resources Management. He also reviews for Leadership Quarterly and the Academy of Management Perspectives.

In addition to book chapters on Africa-centered Management and corporate environmental sustainability he has authored Strategic Followership: How Employees Contribute to Organizational Productivity (to be published in November, 2014), edited a book on Advancing Research Methodology in the African Context: Techniques, Methods, and Designs (Volume 10 of Research Methodology in Strategy and Management Series) to be published in November, 2014, and co-authored a textbook, Managing Organizational Behavior in the African Context, which was published in January, 2013. He is a co-winner of the strategic doing award of the Academy of Management in 2012.