Centres of expertise - Ricardo

Citation

Margaroni, D. (1998), "Centres of expertise - Ricardo", Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, Vol. 50 No. 5. https://doi.org/10.1108/ilt.1998.01850eab.001

Centres of expertise - Ricardo

Centres of expertise ­ Ricardo

Keywords: Fuel, Lubricant, Ricardo

Sir Harry Ricardo was born in London in 1885 and was educated at Rugby and Cambridge where he studied at Trinity College. He was a man of his time, indeed the first IC engined cars were made by Daimler and Benz in the year of his birth. He was renowned for his research into the problem of knock in engines; the results of his work on fuel and reducing fuel consumption assisted Alcock and Brown to cross the Atlantic for the first time by aircraft. Over the years, he was responsible for significant developments in the design of piston engines for a number of applications and derivatives of his original designs are still in production. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1929 and in 1948 was knighted in recognition of his long and distinguished services to the internal combustion engine industry. He died in 1974 at the age of 89.

Ricardo Consulting Engineers ­ the beginning

From his earliest days, Harry Ricardo had a fascination for engines. He had designed and built many small engines in his youth including, at the age of 17, an engine to pump water at the family home in Sussex. In 1905 he started "The Two-stroke Engine Company" to manufacture and sell a car, the Dolphin, fitted with a novel engine which he had designed. This also found its way into many of the Shoreham-built fishing boats until almost every fisherman had a Dolphin engine in his boat; they were ideally suited to prolonged low-speed operation and proved extremely reliable.

In 1915, he was contacted by the Royal Naval Air Service to help with the design of a device to manoeuvre battle tanks into position aboard railway wagons. He had previously designed a novel hydraulic jacking system that had come to the attention of the RNAS, a derivative of this jack, they thought, would be suitable to help move the tanks into position correctly.

In fact, he discovered numerous other problems with the tank engine itself that he was able to help with. For example, the existing engine, a Daimler 105hp sleeve-valve gasoline engine, had a poor lubrication system and many failures occurred as a result. Its purely reciprocating sleeves supplied a large quantity of oil into the exhaust port and the pall of blue smoke revealed the tank's location. Harry designed a new four-stroke cross head-type engine producing 150hp with no visible smoke. Around 8,000 engines were produced to power the tanks; many more found themselves powering generators in workshops, hospitals and camps. Some were even used in railway shunting locomotives and in marine propulsion. The success of this venture led to Harry Ricardo buying the land and setting up the laboratory on its present site in 1919.

Many other successes were credited to Ricardo over the years that followed, including:

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  Octane Rating Scale. Harry Ricardo invented a unique variable compression ratio engine dedicated to fuels research which led him to devise the fuel rating index known today as the Octane Rating.

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  The Turbulent Cylinder Head. During the winter of 1919, Harry devised this form of combustion system for side valve engines that went on to become incorporated into many vehicle maker's designs and provided royalties for the company for 15 years. The 1934 Harley-Davidson VLD, for example, used Ricardo's turbulent head design.

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  The Triumph-Ricardo Motorcycle. In 1921, Sir Harry's colleague Major Halford raced his own Triumph 500 at Brooklands with Ricardo's blend of special race fuel made for Shell. Excited by the success, they designed and built a new cylinder, piston and cylinder head with a four-valvepentroof combustion chamber for the Triumph. Halford won his next race easily with the new machine and Ricardo was awarded a contract with Triumph to incorporate some of these features into the well-known Triumph-Ricardo production machine which sold in large numbers.

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  Vauxhall Luxury Motorcycle. This was an advanced machine for 1923, designed totally by Ricardo at Vauxhall's request and following Ricardo's successful design for the 3-litre racing engine in the Vauxhall TT. The 960cc four-cylinder bike featured a shaft drive to the rear wheel.

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  The Comet Combustion Chamber. The famous Ricardo Comet IDI diesel combustion system for high-speed diesel engines was developed in 1931 for AEC to use in the London Buses. The world's first production diesel passenger car, the 1935 Citroen Rosalie, featured a design by Ricardo incorporating the Comet Mk III combustion chamber. Derivatives of this design are still used by the world's major vehicle makers in today's designs.

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  Record-breaking Diesel Car of 1936. The "Flying Spray" was a car driven by Captain George Eyston to break the existing speed record for a diesel-engined car. It achieved 159 miles per hour at Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, USA using a high-performance diesel engine, the V12 "RR/D" which Ricardo had designed for Rolls Royce.

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  Alfa-Romeo Type 162 V16 Racing Engine. In 1938 Ricardo acted as consultants to Alfa-Romeo during critical design stages of their successful V16 3-litre Grand Prix racing engine for the 1940 season. The engine was based on outline designs submitted by Harry Ricardo and much of the detail valve train design was based on Harry's recommendations.

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  Rolls-Royce Crecy Aero Engine. Significant development work was carried out by Ricardo during 1941 on a Rolls Royce two-stroke V12 gasoline engine of extremely compact design. This sleeve valve engine produced 219bhp per litre but never reached production because it was overtaken by the development of the aircraft gas turbine.

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  The Gas Turbine "Barostat". Ricardo worked with Frank Whittle to solve a number of problems he had in the development of the jet engine during 1941. One such problem was the control of fuel mixture with altitude changes, for which Ricardo devised the Barostat to reduce pressure in the fuel supply automatically as the aircraft climbed. Ricardo became very closely involved with development work on gas turbine fuel systems during subsequent years.

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  Major advances with the IDI Diesel. Ricardo worked with Peugeot in the 1960s to produce a then state-of-the-art diesel engine for the 1970s incorporating a much improved version of the Ricardo "Comet" combustion chamber.

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  A steam engine ­ in 1972. Ricardo carried out a project for General Motors to investigate possible steam engine designs able to power a large American car. The target was 150hp at 18 mile/US gallon with very low pollution levels. The result was a Ricardo-designed and manufactured prototype engine with single stage expansion and variable valve gear, driving through a three-speed transmission. The engine ran on steam at a temperature of 538ºC and a pressure of 69bar.

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  The Stirling Engine. This engine has long promised exceptional efficiency. In 1978 Ricardo was commissioned by the US Department of Energy to take part in a project to develop a Stirling engine for passenger car use. In all, 45 of these engines were built; they gave outstanding emissions performance but the efficiency was compromised by the need to operate under transient conditions.

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  The Voyager Aircraft. In 1986, Voyager was the first aircraft to fly around the world non-stop and without refuelling. Ricardo redesigned the Teledyne Continental engine to incorporate a highly efficient combustion system and water cooling, thereby contributing towards this record-breaking flight in terms of fuel savings and lower drag.

There is a considerable amount of cross linking between the work activities located in the various centres (see Figure 1). Some of the activities of the individual parts of the organisation are described in more detail below. Approximately 54 per cent of the resources are devoted to diesel engine development, 43 per cent on gasoline engine development, supported by some 63 fully-equipped testbeds (see Plates 1 and 2). The remainder is divided among a number of miscellaneous projects. Ricardo employs over 1,200 staff, some 70 per cent being qualified engineers and technicians. The annual turnover is some £80 million, of which some 8-9 per cent is invested into a programme of internally funded research.

Figure 1 The Ricardo Organisation

Plate 1 Engine installed in Ricardo test bed

Plate 2 Control corridor of Ricardo Test Services

Current research projects include:

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  High-speed direct injection diesel engine.

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  Vehicle refinement.

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  Ultra-low emissions and high fuel economy vehicle.

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  Advanced gasoline engine concepts.

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  Further enhancements to VECTIS CFD simulation code.

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  Ultra low emissions truck engine.

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  Driveability improvements.

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  Motorcycle two-stroke and four-stroke emissions reduction.

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  Vehicle thermal systems simulation.

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  Flow visualisation system.

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  Statistical testing methodologies.

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  Particulate size consortium.

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  Direct injection gasoline concepts.

Ricardo Consulting Engineers Ltd, (Shoreham, UK)

This site, the "home" of Ricardo Consulting Engineers, occupies about 10 acres on the boundary of Shoreham Airport (see Plate 3).

Plate 3 Ricardo Consulting Engineers Ltd, Shoreham, UK

Comprehensive engine test facilities include both the evaluation of proprietary units and test simulations performed on a series of test engines developed by Ricardo, which can also be supplied to customers to perform their own evaluations.

These include:

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  Ricardo Proteus. The Proteus is designed to replicate one cylinder of a heavy duty truck engine with swept cylinder volume of typically between 2 and 3 litres. The engine is designed to investigate combustion chamber development, the use of alternative fuels including gaseous fuels, component development including FIE systems, also exhaust gas recirculation development.

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  Ricardo Titan. The Titan is designed to replicate one cylinder of a medium duty direct injection diesel engine with swept cylinder volumes ranging from 0.9 to 1.6 litres. The engine is designed to investigate combustion chamber development, the use of alternative fuels including gaseous fuels, component development including FIE systems, also exhaust gas recirculation development.

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  Ricardo WD300. The WD300 is a compression ignition, single cylinder research engine, capable of running on residual fuel oil and distillate at operating conditions of up to 40bar BMEP and 240bar maximum cylinder pressure. This engine is designed to investigate the development of lubricating oils and is also ideally suited to emissions testing, an area of increasing interest to the marine diesel industry.

Some of the projects currently being undertaken are described in more detail as follows:

Fuel and lubricant testing services

Ricardo offers a wide spectrum of test facilities designed specifically to meet the needs of the fuel and lubricant industries. Tests are run in accordance with procedures defined in the international product performance specifications, or in accordance with customer specified test procedures.

The tests available range from the simplest chainsaw procedure to the most sophisticated cycling procedures, using engines of up to 250kW. The computerised test beds are located in the individual acoustic enclosures and are equipped with Ricardo Test Automation Taskmaster 400 control and logging equipment.

In addition to traditional operating parameters, intake air temperature is also controlled. There are four further configurable control loops. Fifty channels of data including fuel consumption can be logged directly, with 20 channels of calculated data available. A further ten channels are reserved for manual data entry.

A central water chilling plant and local air heaters in each cell provide year round ability to control intake air temperatures down to 10ºC when required.

The individual test cells are configured to adapt to changing demands. Test specific components such as the engine, heat exchangers, intake air system and oil make-up equipment are mounted on a transportable pallet which can be quickly installed.

All cells can be equipped with simple or sophisticated gaseous emissions measuring equipment. Mini-tunnels can be installed in any test cell for the determination of particulate emissions.

The facilities are operated 24 hours per day, seven days per week, all year. This high utilisation level is one reason why Ricardo can offer competitive prices. All work is undertaken in accordance with ISO 9001 and EN 45001, ensuring Ricardo maintains its high quality services.

Transmission rattle

The growing trend towards lighter, more efficient transmissions with improved shift quality has led to transmission rattle becoming a major problem during the development of modern passenger cars. These vehicles are also reaching standards of interior refinement where not only the noise level but also the noise quality is of great importance.

There does not appear to be any simple solution for transmission rattle. While reductions can be obtained by optimising gear backlashes or changing inertias it is usually necessary to make a compromise between the efficiency of shift quality and the level of rattle.

Ricardo believe that if rattle is to be reduced to acceptable levels without seriously affecting the efficiency or shift quality, it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the mechanisms behind rattle. Most automotive transmissions generate rattle at several gear meshes. With a knowledge of the contribution of each gear mesh to the overall problem, solutions need only be targeted at the most significant meshes. This maintains good overall efficiency and shift quality.

Air flow development

Air flow characteristics have a significant effect on combustion in both diesel and gasoline engines. The mass of air drawn into the cylinder determines the amount of fuel that can be burned; the charge motion generated during the intake stroke influences air-fuel mixing and the rate of combustion. Optimisation of gas flows both into and out of the cylinder is essential in order to bring about improvements in terms of emissions, power and torque, fuel consumption, noise and idle stability. Techniques such as dynamic flow visualisation rigs, laser Doppler anemometry, computational fluid dynamics are employed, and an in-house computer programme (VECTIS) has been developed.

Analytical techniques

The comprehensive in-house laboratories are equipped to perform advanced instrumentational analytical work, including the following.

Thin layer activation wear measurement (TLA)

Ricardo is a leader in the use of novel radio tracer techniques for the measurement of engine wear and is one of the few laboratories authorised to carry out this work. The method measures the loss of radioactive material from a wearing or corroding surface, online analysis permits real time wear analyses to be performed, on multiple components if necessary. This service supports a range of other in-house areas including design, material selection, engine development, fuel and lubricant development, additive development, analysis of EGR effects, all types of fuel, all types and sizes of engine in automotive, industrial and marine applications.

Oil consumption measurement using radiotracer technology

Ricardo is a leader in the use of tritium radio tracer labelling for the measurement of oil consumption. The radiotracer technique monitors the path of oil through the engine, providing a quick and accurate determination of oil consumption through the detection of tritium in exhaust gas. Benefits include the ability continuously to map online throughout the operating temperature range, speed, accuracy, simultaneous measurement of engine oil consumption and oil survival in exhaust particulates, and provides a key insight into automotive component wear, also lubricant and fuel formulation. Again, this service supports a number of other in-house development areas.

Aldehyde analysis service

This service can also be extended to the measurement of aldehyde emissions at customer laboratories by the use of transportable filter cartridges. Aldehydes in emissions are of current interest since the measurement of non-methane organic gas emissions requires the quantitative analysis of individual aldehydes, several low-molecular weight aldehydes have large ozone-formation potentials, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are classified as gaseous toxics in the USA, and many aldehydes are irritant and odorous.

Diesel particulate analysis service

Again, this service can also be extended to the measurement of particulates in emissions at customer laboratories. Particulates are composed of fuel-derived hydrocarbons (see Figure 2), lubricant-derived hydrocarbons, carbon and sulphate, with the relative proportions varying according to engine type and operating condition, fuel and lubricant type, and the presence of a catalyst or particulate trap. A solid-injection gas chromatographic method is used for the analysis of the fuel and lubricant hydrocarbons, a thermogravimetric technique is used for carbon, while the sulphate, nitrate, phosphate and selected metals are analysed using ion chromatography. Individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitrated PAHs, and other substituted and heterocyclic PAHs can also be determined.

Figure 2 Fuel- and lubricant-derived hydrocarbons in diesel particulate emissions

Online hydrocarbon speciation by FTIR

Continuous speciation of hydrocarbon exhaust emissions is carried out using Fourier transform infra red spectroscopy (FTIR). The measurement of non-methane organic gases requires the analysis of individual hydrocarbon species in order to calculate their effects on urban ozone formation. Benzene, 1,3-butadiene, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are classified as gaseous toxics in the USA. Since some hydrocarbons are much easier to control by catalysts than others, a knowledge of hydrocarbon emission composition can help to explain catalyst performance phenomena.

The exhaust emission analysis technology is also used when evaluating reformulated fuels as well as conventional fuels.

Rapid response service

Ricardo provide an analytical service to provide engineering design validation in the following areas:

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  crankshaft bearing analysis;

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  pseudostatic valve train analysis;

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  connecting rod stress analysis;

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  dynamic valve train analysis;

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  crankshaft torsional vibration;

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  camshaft torsional vibration.

Thermal systems engineering

An integrated approach is taken in the thermal management of engines and vehicles, including cabin comfort, engine thermal analysis, engine thermal measurements, under-bonnet thermal management, warm-up prediction, vehicle calibration, engine cooling strategy development, and cooling circuit analysis.

Dynamic system simulation

The Powertrain Control Department provides simulation and control solutions to the automotive, marine and industrial sectors, e.g:

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  Multiple engine marine propulsion system.

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  Hybrid vehicle simulation and control.

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  Vehicle driveability models.

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  Driveline torsional vibration assessment.

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  Air/fuel ratio processes and control in gasoline engines and diesel engine EGR and smoke limitation.

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  Canister purge system for gasoline engine evaporative emissions control.

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  Pneumatic gear shift assistor.

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  Timing belt behaviour.

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  Vehicle electrical system.

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  Continuously variable transmission (CVT).

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  Instantaneous crankshaft velocity prediction.

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  Automated calibration of engine management system (EMS) air fuel ratio control.

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  Traction control system actuator.

Prototype manufacturing and assembly

Ricardo has the capability for manufacturing prototypes of components or complete engines, either on an individual basis or for limited production runs. Manufacturing facilities include CNC machining, precision manual machining including vertical boring, horizontal boring, turning, grinding and honing, 3-D digitisation and full CAD/CAM capabilities including surfacing and solid modelling.

Vehicle control systems and calibration

Ricardo has extensive expertise and capabilities in the application of state-of-the-art tools used in simulation, control and calibration. These include embedded controller software and hardware development tools and simulation tools such as MATLAB, SIMULINK and ADAMS.

Facilities include:

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  Emissions and chemistry laboratories.

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  Static cold chamber.

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  Transient testbeds.

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  Chilled fluid dynamometers.

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  Vehicle preparation ­ component integration and installation.

Application examples include:

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  Driveability evaluation.

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  On-board diagnostics.

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  Fuel economy.

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  After-treatment and exhaust.

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  Transmission and driveline.

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  Fuel system.

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  Combustion system and development.

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  Exhaust gas recirculation.

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  Control systems.

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  Suspension, steering and braking systems.

Ricardo-FFD Ltd (Coventry, UK) ­ vehicle engineering design and manufacture of transmissions and drivelines

Ricardo-FFD offers a full range of services which can be tailored to the specific needs of each client. Ricardo-FFD operates worldwide and has the expertise, experience, management and infrastructure to handle all types of projects, from technical consultancy to complete turnkey vehicle projects. Fields of expertise include:

(1) Transmissions and driveline:

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  automatic, manual and CVT;

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  controls and actuating mechanisms;

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  all wheel drive;

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  axles;

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  differentials;

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  motorsport.

(2) Vehicle and chassis:

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  vehicle structure;

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  suspension and steering;

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  brakes;

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  fuel and exhaust systems;

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  HVAC and cooling;

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  powertrain installation.

Virtually every section of the automotive industry is served including volume production cars, niche and specialist vehicles, commercial vehicles, race and rally cars, electric and hybrid vehicles, agricultural tractors, military vehicles, motorcycles, marine transmissions, and off-highway vehicles and equipment.

Of particular interest is the Ricardo-FFD Viscous Coupling invented in 1969 by Major Tony Rolt the founder of FF Developments, now Ricardo-FFD. The viscous coupling (VC) was a revolutionary limited slip device which did not rely on friction or mechanical locking to restrain wheelspin. Inherently smooth, progressive and quiet, it was adopted for many transfer case and axle limited slip differentials for all wheel drive, front and rear wheel drive configurations. Applications were developed in many passenger vehicles, racing and rally cars. For more than 20 years Ricardo-FFD has researched and developed the behaviour and characteristics of the VC for motorsport and special applications. The VC consists of an outer chamber or barrel with an inner member or hub. A series of plates (which do not touch one another) are alternately connected (via splines) to the barrel and hub. The unit is sealed and filled with silicone fluid. The VC acts as a "speed sensitive" limited slip device through the properties of silicone fluid in shear. In order for the hub to rotate relative to the barrel, one set of plates has to rotate relative to the other set which can only be achieved by the plates shearing through the silicone fluid. This shearing action, with no plate to plate contact, endows the VO with its smooth, predictable and reliable behaviour. As the speed difference increases, so the resistance to shear increases also, providing the speed sensitive characteristic.

Ricardo-FFD are also involved in a major project to improve noise, vibration and harshness in van cabins. The findings initiated a number of design changes which brought very significant improvements.

Ricardo Test Automation Ltd (Worcester, UK)

This subsidiary is involved in a number of areas of development of test systems including:

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  Specialist manufacture of automotive test systems.

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  Engines and chassis dynamometers.

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  Transmission and component test rigs.

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  Anechoic test cells.

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  Control systems.

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  Windows-based software systems.

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  Turnkey project capability.

Ricardo Special Vehicles Ltd (Shoreham, UK)

RSV is a subsidiary of Ricardo Consulting Engineers Limited (RCE), itself a member of Ricardo Group plc. RSV has the appropriate skill base and experience to manufacture heavy truck or tractor components for low-volume production, or high volume lightweight passenger car assemblies. Ongoing investment in equipment, facilities and staff training ensure the continuous enhancement of the group's capabilities. Supported by a trusted and well proven subcontractor supply base, the RSV Manufacturing group offers clients a flexible and fast reacting service in all aspects of chassis, body and tooling manufacture.

Manufacturing capabilities include:

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  Manufacture of test and durability rigs.

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  Manufacture of body panel assemblies and complete body shells.

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  Manufacture and assembly of chassis frames.

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  Manufacture of chassis components.

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  Sourcing of prototype components.

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  Subcontractor management and liaison.

Assignments regularly accepted include:

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  Prototype body build fixtures.

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  Ergonomic and seating bucks.

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  Front/rear end bucks for crash testing.

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  Durability rigs.

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  Vehicle chassis assemblies.

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  Special vehicle conversion kits.

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  Specialist motor sport components.

Ricardo Software (Chicago, USA and Shoreham, UK)

Ricardo have developed a number of in-house software systems expressly designed to assist engine design and development by simulating and predicting responses of components under varying operating conditions. Among these are:

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  WAVE ­ engine design and 1-D gas dynamics simulation. A one-dimensional, non-linear, finite volume time domain code which predicts the flow of gas through the intake, engine and exhaust. Gives accurate predictions of engine performance (power, torque, back pressure), noise at the intake and exhaust orifices, also transient noise, producing real sounds for subjective assessment.

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  KADOS. Modelling and development of intake and exhaust systems.

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  VECTIS. Highly versatile software for finite-volume CFD analysis featuring a unique, fully automatic mesh generation technology capable of providing a mesh accurately conforming to virtually any flow geometry. It is applicable to engine cooling systems, intake system development, combustion systems, integration with CAD and related CAE systems, geometry interface, commercial FE interface and WAVE/VECTIS integration.

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  VALDYN. Valve train and drive system dynamics.

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  ENGDYN. Crankshaft/cylinder block coupled analysis.

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  FINJECT. Fuel injection system simulation

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  PISDYN. Piston secondary dynamics and skirt lubrication analysis.

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  RINGPAK. Piston ringpack dynamic analysis.

Summary

Whether one drives a family saloon car, a heavy truck or even a state-of-the-art Formula 1 Grand Prix car, it is more than likely that Ricardo will have been involved at some stage in the design, development, production or testing of the vehicle such is the diverse nature of the activities of this organisation. Over the past few years, the organisation has grown at an incredible rate and can now claim to provide a complete service for its clients from the design and research stage of a project, to the production and testing of prototypes and components to the provision of test facilities. Ricardo have worked on major projects for such household names such as Ford, Nissan, Mazda, Daihatsu, Volvo, Renault, Rover, Peugeot, Ferrari and Subaru as well as having being involved with virtually every other car or engine manufacturer at some stage or other.

The sheer diversity of Ricardo's areas of expertise and of its clients' needs has meant that Ricardo has become expert at adapting its service to meet differing projects. No job is apparently too big or too small, whether a turnkey project with a value in excess of £25 million or a simple feasibility study or research project worth £5,000.

As would be expected with such a forward-looking organisation, quality is evident throughout. The company is accredited to industry standards including ISO 9001 as well as a number of individual company in-house quality standards. They have also been accredited with the Investors in People as well as having received a number of Queens Awards to Industry.

One of Ricardo's unique features is that since no one shareholder holds more than about 7 per cent of the total shares, Ricardo is in the fortunate position of being a completely independent company, a distinct advantage when developing new products for a wide range of clients. Such independence is valued very highly by Ricardo and by its clients, it equates to the freedom to take on any project and deal with any customer without bias, and under conditions of strict confidentiality. It is this flexibility of approach and ability to adapt its services to meet the needs of customers that sets Ricardo apart from the rest. Long-established in engineering circles as world leaders in all areas of automotive engineering, Ricardo has further strengthened its position as a major international player through a series of key acquisitions. The success that the group has enjoyed in recent times has meant that certain areas of expertise have blossomed into Ricardo subsidiaries in their own right. Ricardo's strong presence in the US, for example, is reflected in the consolidation of its interests in North America, where Ricardo has now become a major force in the market, recently winning a contract for the concept development for an engine for a consortium comprised of GM, Ford, Chrysler, the Environmental Protection Agency and the US National Laboratories.

With environmental pressures and legislative measures driving the development of automotive technology into hitherto unforeseen areas at an ever-increasing pace, one thing is certain. Ricardo will be at the forefront.

David Margaroni