Emerald | International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship | Table of Contents

CHALLENGING THE FEMALE UNDERPERFORMANCE HYPOTHESIS

Thu, 20 Jun 2013 00:00:00 +0100

Abstract

Purpose - The question of whether female-owned firms underperform male-owned firms has triggered much research and discussion. Klapper and Parker’s (2011) review concluded that the majority of prior research suggests that female-owned firms underperform relative to male-owned firms. However, using performance measures that control for size and risk (and after controlling for demographic differences such as industry, experience and hours worked) Robb and Watson (2012) found no gender performance difference in their sample of newly established U.S. firms. The aim of this study, therefore, is to replicate Robb and Watson’s (2012) study to see if their findings can be generalized to another geographical location, Australia.Design/methodology/approach - We test the female underperformance hypothesis using data from the CAUSEE project, a panel study which follows young firms over four years. We use three outcome variables: survival rates, return on assets and the Sharpe (1975) ratio.Findings - Consistent with Robb and Watson (2012), our results indicate that female-owned firms do not underperform male-owned firms.Originality/value - While replication studies are rare in entrepreneurship, they are an important tool for accumulating generalizable knowledge. Our results suggest that while female-owned firms differ from male-owned firms in terms of many control variables (such as industry, owners’ previous experience and hours worked) they are no less successful. This outcome should help dispel the female underperformance myth; which if left unchallenged could result in inappropriate policy decisions and, more importantly, could discourage women from establishing new ventures.

Gender Effects on Entrepreneurial Intention: A Meta-Analytical Structural Equation Model

Thu, 20 Jun 2013 00:00:00 +0100

Abstract

Purpose - Although the percentage of female entrepreneurs has increased over the past several years, it is far below the level of males. Drawing on the theory of planned behavior and role congruity theory, the purpose of this paper is to specify a model in which the relationship between gender and EI is mediated by three essantial motivational constructs (i.e., attitude toward starting a business, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC)).Design/methodology/approach - The study specifies and tests a meta-analytical structural equation model. The study aggregates the results of 30 studies (N = 52,367).Findings - The study reveals a higher average EI for men compared to women. However, although significant, the gender differences in EI and the motivational constructs were small and can not sufficiently explain the substantial differences in actually starting a business. Furthermore, moderator analyses show differences in the gender-EI relationship between Europe and the U.S. and between students and non-students.Research limitations/implications - Differences between men and women seem to be a consequence of differences in turning intentions into implementation. Researchers are called upon to investigate gender differences in hindrances as a potential explanation for different implementations and when and why women give up their entrepreneurial plans. Moreover, future research should investigate further motivational processes beyond those suggested by the theory of planned behavior.Originality/value - The model helps to decompose the overall gender-EI relationship into specific pathways and, hence, helps understanding the reasons for this relationship. The meta-analytical approach leads to more precise estimates of relationships (i.e., with lower sampling error) and a higher statistical power. Furthermore, the moderator analysis helps understanding the role of contextual factors (i.e., region) for the gender-EI relationship.

Exploring the financing gap between native born women- and immigrant women-owned firms at the start-up stage:Empirical evidence from Swedish data

literatinetwork@emeraldinsight.com (Saeid Abbasian, Darush Yazdanfar) — Thu, 20 Jun 2013 00:00:00 +0100

Abstract

Purpose - The main purpose of this study is to provide empirical evidence which identifies the impact of ethnicity and other relevant variables on external capital acquisition among Swedish women-owned businesses at start-up. Design/methodology/approach - Several methods have been employed to analyze our sample including a binary logistic regression model. The sample consists of 836 women-owned businesses in southeast Sweden; 97 immigrant-owned, 739 native born-owned.Findings - The results indicate that there are partly significant differences between native women-owned firms and immigrant woman-owned businesses at start-up. Unlike the native- owned firms, the immigrant woman-owned businesses rely more on loans from family members and less on bank loans. Practical implications - These results reveal that age has a positive impact on loans from family members, while the additional job outside one’s own business, the amount of the owner’s personal start-up capital and firm size positively influenced access to capital from banks. The owners’ level of education, previous business experience, the legal form taken by the firm and the industry affiliation conversely played no significant role in explaining the women owners’ attitudes toward loans from either friends or the bank.Originality/value - To the authors’ best knowledge, this study is the first empirical investigation addressing this issue for the Swedish context.

Documenting Essex-Boy as a local gendered regime

literatinetwork@emeraldinsight.com (Robert Smith) — Thu, 20 Jun 2013 00:00:00 +0100

Abstract

Purpose - As a social construct, entrepreneurship is portrayed as an unashamedly masculine endevour. This forms the basis for much feminist research in entrepreneurship. Despite a sustained research effort in the field of gendered entrepreneurship research this polarised viewpoint remains under researched from the perspective of masculinity. Rather than perpetuate the polarity this short article considers the concept of gendered entrepreneurial regimes as an explanatory variable. Design/methodology/approach - Using documentary analysis techniques this article seeks to document the existence of a particular gendered local regime in the form of 'Essex-Boy Culture. Findings - The findings although tentative indicate that as a recognised gendered local regime Essex-Boy Identity manifests itself physically at a conceptual, gendered, geographic, community and cultural level. Semiotically it can be expressed as a legitimate business identity, a criminal identity, a celebrity status, a political identity, as parody, caricature and as metaphor. It can be expressed as an ideology, a doxa, class position, a culture or as an initiating dream. It also exists at a narrative level via memoires, biographies, jokes or scripted insult. Research limitations/implications - Given that this is a preliminary study based on secondary documents there is clearly scope for other studies to be conducted into this interesting phenomenon. Originality/value - This study is original in its exclusive use of documentary research / analysis to uncover gendered aspects of an under studied entrepreneurial regime.

Opportunities or Obstacles? Understanding the Challenges Faced by Migrant Women Entrepreneurs.

literatinetwork@emeraldinsight.com (Fara Azmat) — Thu, 20 Jun 2013 00:00:00 +0100

Abstract

Purpose - Applying theories of entrepreneurship, the paper aims to identify the factors - with theoretical explanations - that act as barriers to migrant women entrepreneurs (MWEs), particularly women from developing countries starting businesses in developed economies. The paper further explores which barriers also have the potential to act as enablers.Design/methodology/approach - The relationship between immigration, ethnicity, gender and entrepreneurship has received little theoretical attention. Linking these discourses, the paper theoretically develops a framework of the possible barriers or enablers faced by MWEs.Findings - The paper reinforces earlier research that MWEs are not a homogenous group; the problems they face are multifaceted, and MWEs from developing countries are the most disadvantaged of entrepreneurs. It identifies multiple factors - human capital, culture, family, institutional factors, gender and social capital- as possible barriers for MWEs. Findings further indicate, that among those barriers, culture, family, social capital and gender have the potential to play a dual role for MWEs, by acting either as a barrier or an enabler. Findings also highlight the overarching and predominant influence of culture – as explained by cultural theory -acting as a barrier for MWEs from developing countries. Research limitations/implications - Given the increasing potential of MWEs, the paper provides implications for not only addressing the barriers but also viewing the barriers as ways to promote entrepreneurship among such minority groups. It further stresses a needs-based approach to customizing policies to benefit the diverse group of MWEs. Limitations: This is a theoretical paper. Empirical research is needed to test the framework and its different dimensions. Given the diversity of MWEs and the factors that shape their entrepreneurial endeavours, it is difficult to develop a single framework to encompass the complexity of the situation. Nevertheless, the proposed framework provides useful insights into the barriers or enablers that MWEs face, along with theoretical explanations and, thus, acts as a springboard for future research. Originality/value - By providing a theory-based framework of the barriers or enablers faced by MWEs, along with policy implications, the paper contributes to a better understanding of the phenomenon of migrant women entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship education and start-up activity: A gender perspective

literatinetwork@emeraldinsight.com (Vegard Johansen) — Thu, 20 Jun 2013 00:00:00 +0100

Abstract

Purpose - This article evaluates whether entrepreneurship education (EE) in upper secondary schools promotes male and female start-up activity. The Company programme (CP) reaches more than 200,000 European youths annually. Design/methodology/approach - The control-group design is methodologically strong, and the empirical data are from Norway. Telephone interviews were conducted with 1,171 24-25 year olds; 50% of the respondents had been involved in CP in the period 2004-2006, and 50% had not. The analyses also control for other factors of relevance to start-up activity.Findings - Results from econometric analyses indicate a positive correlation between participation in CP and start-up activity. The analyses also indicate that CP has more impact on male start-up activity as compared to women.Research limitations/implications - A lot of other influences occur between the participation in CP and the start-up activity. Although CP may be associated with more start-ups, these are not necessarily start-ups of a higher quality, survival rate or growth potential. The analysis also conceals variations in start-up activity among CP-participants with regard to time spent on CP, position in the CP, and obligatory vs. voluntary participation.Practical implications - To promote start-up activity among women more effectively, CP could be more focused on shaping confidence and increasing perceived competency among girls participating in the programme. Originality/value - The study measures experience with start-up activity 6-8 years after EE-participation in upper secondary school, it compares the impact of EE on male and female business start-ups, and the control-group design is advantageous compared to previous studies.