The Difference in the Antimicrobial effect of Katuk Leaf Extract (Sauropus Androgynus (l.) Merr.) Concentration against Escherichia Coli

Cut Asmaul Husna (Medical Faculty, Microbiology Department, Universitas Malikussaleh, Lhokseumawe, Aceh, Indonesia)
Al Muqsith (Medical Faculty, Anatomy Department, Universitas Malikussaleh, Lhokseumawe, Aceh, Indonesia)
Soya Loviana Hasibuan (Medical Faculty, Universitas Malikussaleh Lhokseuumawe, Aceh, Indonesia)

Proceedings of MICoMS 2017

ISBN: 978-1-78756-793-1

ISSN: 2516-2853

Publication date: 4 May 2018

Abstract

Purpose – The aim of this study is to determine the differences in the antimicrobial activity of katuk leaf (Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr) against Escherichia coli.

Design/Methodology/Approach – The method used in this study was experimental posttest using a control group design. Analysis of the effect of katuk leaf was performed in the dilution method with 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% concentration. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA test (α = 0.05) and was then tested using the least significant difference (LSD) test.

Findings – Bacterial colony counting that used total plant count found the average of E. coli amount at 20% of concentration (526.820 CFU/ml), 40% of concentration (449.380 CFU/ml), concentration of 60% (255.710 CFU/ml), concentration of 80% (194.110 CFU/ml), and at concentration 100% (168.600 CFU/ml). This study concluded that the katuk leaf extract at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% of concentration had antimicroba effect with significant influence. The 100% of concentration had the most significant effect compared with the other concentrations.

Research Limitations/Implications – Katuk leaf could be used as one of the alternative herbal choices that has a compound antimicrobial effect.

Originality/Value – This study increases the theoretical understanding of the difference of antimicrobial effectivity of katuk leaf extract (S. Androgynus (L.) Merr.) concentration against E. coli

Keywords

Citation

Husna, C.A., Muqsith, A. and Hasibuan, S.L. (2018), "The Difference in the Antimicrobial effect of Katuk Leaf Extract (Sauropus Androgynus (l.) Merr.) Concentration against Escherichia Coli", Proceedings of MICoMS 2017 (Emerald Reach Proceedings Series, Vol. 1), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 361-366. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78756-793-1-00037

Publisher

:

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2018, Cut Asmaul Husna, C. Al Muqsith, C. Soya Loviana Hasibuan.

License

Published in the Emerald Reach Proceedings Series. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode


1. Introduction

Infectious diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world. World Health Organization (WHO) in 2012 mentioned that one-third of the 25 million deaths worldwide are caused by infectious diseases (Depkes, 2012). Bacteria are one of the most common contributing microorganisms (Garg et al., 2016). The high incidence of infection requires treatment in killing the bacteria, one of them by using antimicrobials, but the high use of antimicrobials is the greatest trigger for the emergence of bacterial resistance (Sylvia and Wilson, 2006). Some bacteria can cause resistance to antimicrobials, one of which is the bacterium Escherichia coli, causing important problems for public health (Roland, 2013). E. coli bacterial infections in Asia have been reported to be resistant to antimicrobial use of about 60–79% (US National Library of Medicine National Institute of Health, 2015). The results of Antimicrobial Resistance in Indonesia (AMRIN-Study) study showed that from 2,494 individuals in Indonesia, 43% of E. coli samples from thousands of individuals are resistant to several antimicrobials, 34% ampicillin, 29% co-trimoxazole, and 25% chloramphenicol (Gabriela et al., 2015).

Indonesia is a biodiversity mega-country rich in medicinal plants and very potential to be developed, one of which is katuk leaf (Hariana, 2015). Katuk leaf (Sauropus androgynus (L). Merr.) is a plant that is utilized as a traditional medicinal ingredient due to its antimicrobial ability, improving and facilitating milk secretion, overcoming skin disorders, fever, and osteoporosis (Suprayogi et al., 2004; Handayani, 2013). Results of research conducted by the National Working Group of Indonesian Medicinal Plants showed that katuk leaves contain several chemical compounds, including flavonoids and tannins that function as antibacterial (Rukmana and Indra, 2003). Previous research conducted by Fatimah et al. (2014) explains that leaf extract of katuk with a concentration of 60–100% can inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in vitro, but does not affect the concentration of 20% and 40%. Research on the effectiveness of katuk leaves at various concentrations in inhibiting E. coli has not obtained the data.

2. Method

This research is a laboratory experimental study using true experimental post-test only control group design. The sample of this research is katuk leaf (S. androgynus (L.) Merr.) which is obtained from Uteunkot village, Lhokseumawe, and pure culture of E. coli bacteria is obtained from Microbiology Laboratory of Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sumatera Utara. The size of the sample is calculated by Federer's formula, and the result is five repetitions. The experimental materials were divided into five groups (according to concentrations of 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%) plus two control groups (Mc Farland control and negative control of katuk leaf extract without suspension).

The leaves of katuk were extracted by the maceration method, until the powder was obtained about 300 g, followed by dissolution with 96% ethanol for three days, then evaporated using vacuum rotary evaporator to produce 30 ml liquid extract. The results of pure extraction were diluted with aquades to reach concentrations of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%. Furthermore, the dilution results are homogenized with the vortex.

Test bacteria from pure cultures that have been identified, about 0.1 ml bacterial inoculum were fed to each extract tube for each concentration, then tested the effectiveness of antimicrobial by dilution technique, which is to be assessed for minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). Next is calculated total plate count (TPC) to get the average value of colony of E. coli on katuk leaf extract (S. androgynus (L.) Merr.) with a concentration of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80 %, and 100%.

This study used completely randomized design (RAL) with five treatments each with five repetitions. The research was analyzed using one-way ANOVA test with significance level (= 0.05).

3. Results

3.1. MIC and MBC extract of katuk leaf (s. androgynus (l.) merr.) against E. coli bacteria on dilution 10−2 and 10−3

The result of MIC and MBC of katuk leaf extract (S. androgynus (L.) Merr.) in E. coli bacteria showed the lowest colony count in 100% katuk leaf extract (see Table 1). While not found in MBC against E. coli bacteria on katuk leaf extract (S. androgynus (L.) Merr.) at concentrations of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% both on dilution 10−2 and 10−3.

Table 1.

The result of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Consentration (MBC) on dilution test of katuk leaf extract (S. androgynus (L.) Merr.) Against Escherichia coli (CFU/ml)

Repetition Dilution Concentration
20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
I 10−2 1,180 824 524 433 622
10−3 1,062 785 478 326 419
II 10−2 971 793 569 396 432
10−3 960 766 392 281 254
III 10−2 1,371 896 598 378 288
10−3 872 801 422 393 263
IV 10−2 1,126 822 733 446 312
10−3 888 810 417 382 303
V 10−2 1,124 1,023 827 598 276
10−3 897 896 523 334 254

Next TPC is calculated in Table 2 to get the average value of colony of E. coli on katuk leaf extract of various concentrations.

Table 2.

The calculation of Average Total Plate Count (TPC) of Katuk Leaf Extract (Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.) Against Escherichia coli

Concentration (%) Average Number of Colony (CFU/ml)
20 526.820
40 449.380
60 255.710
80 194.110
100 168.600

The result of calculation of total plate count (TPC) found that the average number of bacteria E. coli at a concentration of 20% had the highest amount of bacterial colony, while at 100% concentration, had the lowest amount of bacterial colony.

3.2. Efficacy of antimicrobial leaf extract katuk (s. androgynus (l.) merr.) against E. coli bacteria

Table 3.

Shapiro–Wilk Normality Test on Antimicrobial Effectiveness of Katuk Leaf Extract (S. androgynus (L.) Merr.) Against Escherichia coli Bacteria

Group Number of Sample Average (%) P value α Score
Concentration 20% 5 99.3 0.988
Concentration 40% 5 84.8 0.188
Concentration 60% 5 90.6 0.443 0.05
Concentration 80% 5 81.7 0.110
Concentration 100% 5 82.4 0.126

Normality test results show that the average percentage data of E. coli bacteria in TPC are normal distribution (P > 0.05) so that further data can be used for one-way ANOVA test ( Table 3).

Furthermore, the homogeneity test is needed to determine the data variance used is the same or not. The test used is the Levene test ( Table 4).

Table 4.

Levene Homogeneity Test against Percentage of Total E. coli Bacteria

Levene Statistic df1 df2 P value α Score
0.684 4 20 0.611 0.05

Homogeneity test results indicate that data variance in this research data is homogenous (P> 0.05) so that further data can be used for one-way ANOVA test.

Table 5.

One-Way ANOVA Test of Percentage of TPC of Escherichia coli Bacteria

Variable Mean SD P value α Score
Concentration 20% 127,198 14,489.28
Concentration 40% 95,222 9,637.68
Concentration 60% 69,484 12,848.53 0.00 0.05
Concentration 80% 48,452 8,674.80
Concentration 100% 41,586 15,172.01

One-way ANOVA test results in Table 5 shows a significant difference in each concentration with P value (0.00). The above data were then tested again using post hoc least significant difference (LSD) to determine whether or not there was a significant effect between the concentration of katuk leaf extract (Sauropusandrogynus (L.) Merr.) At concentrations of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%.

Table 6.

Post-Hoc Test LSD on percentage of TPC of Escherichia coli.

The result of post-hoc LSD test in Table 6 shows significant difference among concentration 20%, concentration 40%, and concentration 60%

(I) Group (J) Group Mean Difference (IJ) Sig.
Concentration 20% Concentration 40% 31.976 0.001
Concentration 60% 57.714 0.000
Concentration 80% 78.746 0.000
Concentration 100% 85.612 0.000
Concentration 40% Concentration 20% −31.976 0.001
Concentration 60% 25.738 0.004
Concentration 80% 46.770 0.000
Concentration 100% 53.636 0.000
Concentration 60% Concentration 20% −57.714 0.000
Concentration 40% −25.738 0.004
Concentration 80% 21.032 0.015
Concentration 100% 27.898 0.002
Concentration 80% Concentration 20% −78.746 0.000
Concentration 40% −46.770 0.000
Concentration 60% −21.032 0.015
Concentration 100% 6.866 0.393
Concentration 100% Concentration 20% −85.612 0.000
Concentration 40% −53.636 0.000
Concentration 60% −27.898 0.002
Concentration 80% −6.866 0.393

4. Discussion

The results of this study showed that there was KHM in all leaf katuk extract concentration tested against E. coli. While no value of minimum inhibitory level (MIC) was obtained in katuk leaf extract at all concentrations. TPC calculations show that extract of katuk leaf (S. androgynus (L.) Merr.) at concentrations of 20% and 40% has a weak effectiveness in inhibiting E. coli while at concentrations of 60%, 80%, and 100% have strong activity. Concentration of 100% is the most effective concentration in inhibiting E. coli compared with other concentration variations.

The higher concentration of katuk leaf extract (Sauropusandrogynus (L.) Merr.) will decrease the number of bacterial colonies that survive. This suggests that with increasing concentrations the greater the levels of active ingredients that act as antimicrobials, so that their growth in inhibiting bacteria is also greater. This is in line with research (Fatimah et al., 2014) which assessed the effectiveness of katuk leaf extract in inhibiting the growth of S. aureus bacteria in vitro.

Different concentrations in variables’ treatment affect the linearity of the optical density (glass and air medium) of the bacteria. Thus, the higher the concentration, the smaller the optical density, which means fewer bacteria can survive. This shows that with the increasing concentration, the greater the level of active ingredients that function as antibacterial, so that its ability in inhibiting bacterial growth is also greater (Ajizah, 2004).

The ability of an antimicrobial agent in negating the micro-organism's survival depends on the concentration of the antimicrobial agent, meaning that the amount of antimicrobial agent in a bacterial environment is critical to the life of exposed bacteria. In addition to the concentration factor, the antimicrobial type also determines the ability to inhibit bacterial growth. In this study, suspected bacterial sensitivity of E. coli is because of the chemical content in katuk leaf extract which consists of antimicrobial nature (Schlegel, 1994).

References

Ajizah, A. (2004). “Sensitivitas Salmonella typhiirum Terhadap Ekstrak Daun Psidium Guadjava L. Bioscientiae”. Bioscientiae, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 3138.

Depkes, R.I. (2012). “Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kesehatan Departemen Kesehatan RI. Badan Litbangkes RI 2012”. Kementrian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia, Jakarta. Available: http://www.diskes.jabarprov.go.id/ [accessed 1 August 2016].

Fatimah, S., Prasetianingsih, Y. and Munandar, A. (2014). “Efektifitas Ekstrak Daun Katuk (Sauropus Androgynus L.) Dalam Menghambat Pertumbuhan Bakteri Staphylococcus aureus Secara In Vitro”. Jogjakarta. Available: http://jurnal.unimus.ac.id/index.php/psn12012010/article/view/1175/1228

Gabriela, V.Ch., Walewangko, W., Bodhi, B.J. and Kepe. (2015). “Uji Resistensi Bakteri Esherichia coli Yang Di Isolasi Dari Plak Gigi Menggunakan Ampisilin”. Jurnal e-Biomedik, Vol. 3, No. 1.

Garg, R., Felgin, R.D., Christie, A.B. and Morens, D. (2016). “Infectious Disease”, Encyclopedia Britannica. Available: https://www.britannica.com/science/infectious-disease [accessed 19 August 2016].

Handayani, T. (2013). Apotek Hidup. Ilmu Padi Infra Pustaka Makmur, Jakarta, p. 4.

Hariana, A. (2015). 262 Tumbuhan Obat dan Khasiatnya. Penebar Swadaya, Jakarta, p. 12.

Roland, M.T. (2013). “Antibiotics Rasistantce Bacteria”. Better Health Channel. Victoria State Government, Australia. Available https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria [accessed 5 September 2016].

Rukmana, R. and Indra, M. (2003). “Katuk Potensi dan Manfaatnya”. Kanisius, Yogyakarta, pp. 78.

Schegel, H.G. (1994). Mikrobiologi umum, Edisi 6. Gadjah Mada Press, Yogyakarta.

Sylvia, A. and Wilson, L.M. (2006). Patofisiologi Konsep Klinis Proses – Proses Penyakit (6th ed., Vol. 2). EGC, Jakarta.

Suprayogi, A. and Meulen, U. (2004). “The Influence of Sauropusandrogynus leaves on the Production of Volatile Fatty Acids using Rumen Liquor under In-Vitro Conditions”. In Expo 2004 – Workshop, Reihe: Nachhaltige Tierproduktion, Tierernährung – Ressourcen und neue Aufgaben, Braunschweig, p. 29.

US National Library of Medicine National Institute of Health. (2015). “Multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli in Asia: Epidemiology and Management”. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25805210 [accessed 23 July 2016].

All papers within this proceedings volume have been peer reviewed by the scientific committee of the Malikussaleh International Conference on Multidisciplinary Studies (MICoMS 2017).

Corresponding author

Cut Asmaul Husna can be contacted at
Prelims
Introduction
Acknowledgement I
Acknowledgement II
The Effect of Job Satisfaction and Work Motivation on Organizational Commitment and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in BNI in the Working Area of Bank Indonesia Lhokseumawe
The Effect of Work Motivation on the Employee Performance with Organization Citizenship Behavior as Intervening Variable at Bank Aceh Syariah
Life-Cycle Performance of a Bridge Subjected to Multiple Heavy Vehicle Impacts
The Efforts of Improving the Professionalism of Lecturers towards the Presentation and Change of KKNI within the University Environment in Aceh
Morphological Process of Devayan: An Analysis of Morphological Tipology
Effect of Freight Transportation for Regional Development in the North Zone of Aceh
The Roles of Digital Democracy on Political Education for Young Generation
Disorders of Sex Development: Ambiguous Genitalia and Partial Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
Difference Analysis of the Autonomy of Extended Regencies in Aceh Province Indonesia
An analysis of Service Quality on Mustahiq Satification using the Kano Model (Case Study on Baitul Mal)
Exploration and Morphological Characterization of Vegetative Part of Avocado at Bebesan Subdistrict Central Aceh District, Indonesia
Poverty Effectiveness for the Maisir (Contest) in the City of Indonesian Aceh Province
Measurement of Study Productivity and Evaluation Analysis by using the American Productivity Center (APC) Model at a Palm Oil Factory (Pks PT. Syaukath Sejahtera)
The Development of an Independent Entrepreneurship Model Through Creative Economy for Women in Lhokseumawe City
Regionalism of Aceh’s Traditional Architecture at Bujang Salim Mosque at Krueng Geeukeuh, Aceh
High Growth and Diameter of the Stem of Corn Plants (Zea May, S) with a Different Cropping Pattern
Influence of Manufacture of Textiles, Clothing, and Leather and Manufacture of Paper, Printing, and Publishing on Economic Growth
Land Erodibility and Land use Directions in Krueng Seulimum Watershed Aceh Province
The Effect of Fermentation of the Peel of Arabica Coffee with Win Prob Probiotics on Crude Fiber Content and Fiber Fraction
Teaching English International Lingua Franca (ELF) in ASEAN Economic Community Context: Teachers and Students Perspectives
Animation as a Creative Industry: A Strategy to Build Creativity and Independence of Youth in Padang, West Sumatra
Improving Production of Liquid Smoke from Candlenut Shell by Pyrolisis Process
Interpersonal Communication of Commercial Sex Workers Transaction with Customers in Syariah Law Area in Indonesia
Macrozoobentos Diversity Index as a Bioindicator in Krueng Cunda River to Support the Success of the Shrimp Agribusniness at Lhokseumawe City, Aceh
The Examination Model of Aceh Commodity Export Firms’ Performance
The Role of Fishing Techniques with Tuah Teng on Food Security in Facing the Asean Economic Community
Reconstruction of Aceh Cultural Identity in the Discourse of Aceh Language Lesson Books in Elementary School
The Effect of Monosodium Glutamate (Msg) Administration to Pyramidal Cells Necrosis on Cerebral Cortex of Wistar Male Rats (Rattus Norvegicus)
Personal Construct Experience of Tionghoa Community in Aceh Reality
Study of Mineralogy Composition, Total, and Exchangable Content of K, Ca, and Mg of Volcanic Ash from Sinabung Mountain Eruption in North Sumatera, Indonesia
The Role of Law in Economic Development: To Develop a Special Economic Zone in Order to Build a National and Regional Economy
Model Corporate Social Responsibility Based on Local Wisdom in West Aceh Regency
Recurrence of Intravenous Leiomyomatosis: A Rare Cause of the Obstruction of the Right Heart
Single Mother Role in The Success of Their Children (Phenomenological Study of Single Women in Makassar City)
Optimal Lot-Sizing Algorithms on Stochastic Demand at the Retailer
Predict Environmental Conditions Using Groundwater Interpretation in Subdistrict Hamparan Perak, Deli Serdang, North Sumatera
Public Discovery of the Concept of Time Value ofMoney with Economic Value of Time
Study on Impact Strength Against Welding Smaw on Hardening Steel AISI 1050
What is the Determinant of Non-Performing Financing in Branch Sharia Regional Bank in Indonesia
Spatial Stochastic Modeling of Adolescent and Under-Five Children Nutritional Status: A Case Study from Aceh, Sumatera Island, Indonesia
Religious Tourism: Concept of Community-Based TourisminAceh Singkil, Indonesia
The Contribution of Revenue and Consumption Cost of Soybean Farmers in Muara Batu Subdistrict Aceh Utara
The Composition of Women Parliament Members Presence in Local Parliament in Aceh (A Case Study at Provincial Parliament of Aceh Province During the Period of 2014 to 2019)
Personal Branding Tri Rismaharini the Provision in Media
Analysis of Factors Affecting the Poverty Level of Farmers Post-Tsunami in Aceh
Dimension of an Islamic Model Value on the Existence of Syariah Walmart
Batik Jambi Promotion Based on Social Media in Asean Economics Community
Islamic Banks in Indonesia: Analysis of Efficiency
Design of Information Monitoring System Flood Based Internet of Things (IoT)
Economic Development and Access to Fish Resources: A Review Sociology on Fisherman’s Production Access in Kuala Langsa, Aceh
Dynamics and Prospect of Wali Nanggroe Institution Post-Conflict in Aceh: Analysis of Policy and Educational Development
Learning Management of Bahasa in Senior High Schools
The Difference in the Antimicrobial effect of Katuk Leaf Extract (Sauropus Androgynus (l.) Merr.) Concentration against Escherichia Coli
City Branding of Denpasar City as a Creative City Through the Denpasar Festival Event
Semantics Equivalence of Cultural Terms of Meurukon Texts Translated from Acehnese into Indonesian
Preparation of Activated Carbon From Banana (Musa acuminate L.) peels for Carbon Monoxide Adsorption
Thermal Behavior of Modified Thermoplastic Starch (TPS) Synthesized from Sago (Metroxylon Sagu) with Diphenylmethane Diisocyanate and Castor Oil
Typhoid Fever Profiles at Cut Meutia Hospital, North Aceh, Indonesia, in 2016-2017
Student Radicalism Ideology Prevention Strategy: A Study at an Islamic Boarding School in Jabal Nur, North Aceh, Indonesia
Implementation of Task-Based Learning for Non-English Students: A Practice in Malikussaleh University
Design of Wild Animal Detection and Rescue System with Passive Infrared and Ultrasonic Sensor based Microcontroller
Policy of Educational Budget Aceh Regency
Foreign Direct Investment Inflow into Aceh province of Indonesia After a Peace Agreement
Design of Web Based Fire Warning System Using Ethernet Wiznet W5500
Sari Cincau Ngrayun Equals with Modern Ready-to-Drink Beverage
The Status of Conservation of Mangroves in the Krueng Reuleng River Area, Leupung, Aceh Besar Regency, Indonesia
Analysis of Understanding the Level of Vibration and the Wave Concept with a Demonstration Method for Students in SMAN 1 Peureulak, Aceh
Screening of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gore-Sorber Method for Predicting Hydrocarbon Generation
Incorporating Peace Education into Aqidah Akhlak Subject in East Aceh
Learning Motivation of Peripheral University Students and its Relation with their English Grades
Thermal Cracking of Low Temperature Conversion on Low Density Polyethylene Plastic Waste for Liquid Hydrocarbon
Correlation of Lead and Zinc Contents in Sediments And Faunus Ater Against Faunus Ater Density in Reuleung River, Leupung, Aceh Besar
The Correlation between Stress Level and Degree of Depression in the Elderly at a Nursing Home in Lhokseumawe in the Year 2017
Effect of Palm Oil Bunches Microfiller on LDPE-recycled Composite Tensile Strength through Melt Blending Process
CSR and Profitability in IDX Agricultural Subsectors
The Crown Witness and the Protection of Human Rights in Criminal Law Verification
Design and Implementation of SCADA Wireless Communication System for Monitoring the Performance of Microhydro Power Plant Based on Protocol AX.25
Production of Lipid Biomass in Locally Isolated Microalga Cultivated in Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME)
An Analysis and Design of a Virtual Collaboration Information System of the Jamu Supply Chain Network Based on a Fair Adaptive Contract
Adsorption of Manganese (II) Ion in the Water Phase by Citric Acid Activated Carbon of Rice Husk
Eco-informatics: The Encouragement of Ecological Data Management
Challenges in Designing ESP Course for First Year Students of Engineering Faculty at Malikussaleh University
Isotherm and Kinetics of Cd(II) Adsorption by Durian (Durio zibethinus) seed Immobilized into Ca-alginate
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Learning on Student’s Science Process Skills and Science Attitudes
Effect of Perception of Facilities, Intensity of Conduct, and Satisfaction of Tax Payers to Submission of Letter by E-Filing Notice on Tax Service
Aceh: Conflict Development after the Helsinki Agreement
The Discretionary Accrual in the Financial Statement of a Public Company in Indonesia: A Literature Review
Inventory and Morphological Characterization of Durian (Durio Zibethinus) in Langkahan and Sawang Sub-District of North Aceh Indonesia
Model of Sustainable Electrical Power Management: Lamp Efficacy of the National Street Lighting in North Sumatera Province
Hamming Index for Some Classes of Graphs with Respect to Edge-Vertex Incidence Matrix
Electrical Automation of Solar Cell-Based Arduino Uno With 16 × LCD Display
Concept Designs of Patient Information Security Using e-Health Sensor Shield Platform on Blockchain Infrastructure