Gastronomy as an effect of visitor loyalty: the Peruvian (Lima) case

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to analyse Peruvian cuisine in the context of visitors’ overall experience, focusing on the loyalty of tourists in terms of gastronomy, their satisfaction with the destination, and the overall image.

Design/methodology/approach

Data were obtained from tourists who visited Lima (Peru). Structural equation modeling was used to verify the hypothesized relationships.

Findings

The results obtained confirm that satisfaction and appreciation, such as quality, have a positive influence on tourists’ loyalty and, therefore, they recommend and express their desire to come back to this destination. The traditional gastronomy of Lima stands out as a prominent factor on overall experience.

Research limitations/implications

This paper helps the managers of cities in their decisions to improve the satisfaction and seek loyalty of those who visit a city, emphasizes the role of gastronomy.

Practical implications

The results obtained in this research can be used for the establishment of new strategies for the promotion of the destination in terms of tourism and traditional food.

Originality/value

The gastronomy in Lima, (Peru) is recognized worldwide, as well as a stimulus for tourism because it increases the number of visits to the destination. Several studies carried out in these types of destinations have shown the existence of a relationship between gastronomy, overall experience, satisfaction and loyalty. However, there are no previous studies carried out in Lima that sustain this relationship. This work makes a contribution that completes the academic literature on the study of the emotional bonds between Peruvian gastronomy and the tourist who visits it and its behaviour.

Citation

Esparza Huamanchumo, R.M., Hernández-Rojas, R.D., Longa-López, R.A. and Cárdenas-Jarama, M. (2023), "Gastronomy as an effect of visitor loyalty: the Peruvian (Lima) case", International Journal of Tourism Cities, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 362-376. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJTC-03-2022-0071

1. Introduction

Peruvian cuisine is the result of a long process of evolution and miscegenation that began in pre-Columbian times and is still on-going, offering widely recognised exquisite dishes to the entire world (Staller, 2021). Peruvian gastronomy has taken advantage from extraordinary ecological biodiversity and a full of complexity culinary history involving crops and methods resulting from the convergence of pre-colonial heritage and the legacy of centuries of immigration from diverse European, Asian and African regions (Matta, 2021). This gave rise to the enrichment of the Peruvian cuisine as centuries went by. Such is the case that the country has been regarded as a regional leader, considered as the Best Culinary Destination and the Best Cultural Destination in 2021 by the World Travel Awards (Mincetur, 2021). Peru has become a widely recognised culinary destination, being awarded the World’s Leading Culinary Destination for eight consecutive years by the World Travel Awards (Osorio, Frew, Lade, & Williams, 2021).

Moreover, Lima, the capital city of Peru, has been recognised as the gastronomic capital of South America (Grey & Newman, 2018), becoming the new ideal destination for food lovers, according to The Washington Post (Markowitz, 2012; Khalip, 2007), whereas the prestigious journal National Geographic included Lima as one of ten culinary destinations to visit worldwide (National Geographic Includes Lima as One of the World Gastronomic Destinations for 2016 - Mincetur, 2022). As for the renowned head chefs, as part of this recognition, Maido del Chef Mitsuharu Tsumura, and Central del Chef Virgilio Martínez, located in Lima, have been ranked among the 10 best restaurants worldwide by the World’s 50 Best Restaurants (The World’s 50 Best Restaurants | The World’s 50 Best Restaurants | The best restaurants in the world, 2022). Simultaneously, Pía León was considered as the world’s best chef this year, 2021 (The World’s 50 Best, 2021). Considering these international acknowledgements, Lima (Peru) became a valued destination thanks to its culture, history and, currently, its gastronomy.

The search for the satisfaction of the needs of both tourists and visitors is the priority of tourism service providers who are making substantial efforts to meet the needs of their customers (Chen & Rahman, 2018). During their stays, activities conducted are oriented towards enjoying the history and culture that the destinations offer (Rahman, Rana, Hoque, & Rahman, 2019). Visiting Peru can be motivated by material or cultural heritage reasons, or both. PROMPERú (2021) states that the main reasons why visitors travel to Peru in their holidays, in addition to the gastronomic ones, involve learning about its history and culture. Similarly, one of four tourists in this segment is motivated by the desire to visit Machu Picchu, as it was inscribed in the 1993 World Heritage List. Machu Picchu is considered as one of the Seven Wonders of the World, so, besides being part of the list, it has been recognised as South America’s leading tourism attraction in 2021 (PROMPERú, 2021). Consequently, this study is appropriate, as it contributes to the material heritage value of Peru in addition to its cuisine as an intangible value, given the importance of assessing the satisfaction with gastronomy as part of its heritage (Huete-Alcocer & Hernández-Rojas, 2022).

Therefore, the studies conducted on cultural tourism have focused on world heritage cities, as their huge potential link to culture and gastronomy, including satisfaction, appreciation, loyalty and gastronomic aspects in various locations, such as Spain (Hernández-Rojas et al., 2021), Mexico (Rojas-Rivas et al., 2020) and Indonesia (Babolian Hendijani, 2016). Specifically, from this perspective, multiple studies have concluded that the tourism activity connected to cultural heritages provides a unique tourist experience that people look forward to (Dibb & Simkin, 2016). In this regard, the gastronomic market orientation is crucial for managers, from the loyalty, satisfaction or expected value perspective. This research studies this concept in terms of management of the cities, as it helps improve tourism (Battour & Ismail, 2016).

The model used to achieve the proposed objective was the American Consumer Satisfaction Index (ACSI), corroborated and commonly used in the literature (Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha, & Bryant, 1996), which shows strong and trustworthy antecedents that can be successfully adapted to different contexts aimed at learning about users’ satisfaction from and loyalty to a given good or service (Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998; Eklöf, 2000). This model has been thoroughly used to study the tourism industry (Bezerra & Gomes, 2019).

Besides deepening the knowledge on the loyalty of a destination with a strong heritage component through its local cuisine, this study contributes to the existing literature in two ways: firstly, by conducting a bibliographic review, followed by suggesting ideas on the administration and management of heritage sites with a strong culinary component. Setting these goals helps us enhance the available information on the complexity of the Peruvian gastronomy, both inherited by indigenous and Spanish communities, through the development of a theoretical model with a case of study that focuses the loyalty of tourists. Visitors’ assessments of the tourism destination regarding its gastronomy, overall experience, satisfaction and subsequent loyalty serve as a basis for the recommendations that may be useful for both public and private entities with interest in promoting, disseminating and improving this type of tourism.

2. Bibliographic review

2.1 The Peruvian cuisine

The cuisine of Peru is recognised worldwide, considered as a National Cultural Heritage, and awarded with South America’s Leading Culinary Destination for the eighth consecutive year (The World Travel Awards, 2021). Said gastronomy has a food-associated magical and religious meaning that has been inherited from the Incas, a legacy that lasts to date (Guardia, 2000). Nowadays, it is still based on an acknowledgement to mother Earth, the Pachamama during the sowing, harvesting and preparation of traditional foods and folkloric festivals. Peru is a multi-cultural country made up of 14 language families and at least 44 ethnic groups (Congress of the Republic of Peru-Commission on Foreign Trade and Tourism, 2004). Peru in recent years is recognized for its varied and award-winning cuisine. Other countries in the region, such as Brazil, are more closely connected with football, whereas Colombia is usually associated with music, but one understands that, in Peru, food is the most important source of pride (Anderson & Benbow, 2017). Lima, the capital of Peru, is a representation of all the country’s gastronomy. Peruvian (Lima) cuisine is the result of the miscegenation of the different cultures that settled in Peru; the combination of these leads to the great diversity of ingredients and dishes, which are the emblem of said cultural mixing (Cox Hall, 2020).

The new stage that Peruvian gastronomy is going through is, at first, connected with the growing international tourism industry, which makes this country a coveted region by the largest operators in this sector. Gastronomy is a broad concept that includes cooking (Adrià et al., 2019). In the case of traditional cuisine, it is defined as those that use certain ancestral techniques (Youn et al., 2019), and the purchase of raw materials is based on the proximity of local foods (Feldmann & Hamm, 2015), in addition, other authors consider gastronomy an additional service offered by the tourism industry (Imilan, 2014). The gastronomy of Peru is the result of a cultural mixture. In this sense, it is defined as gastronomy with a traditional base of ancestral origin together with the use of local raw materials in its elaborations as a consequence of having an agri-food economy. The passage through the current region of Peru of different civilizations and cultures: indigenous, Spanish or Creole, Afro-Peruvian or Asian make up a cultural sum that makes its traditional cuisine very unique.

2.2 Gastronomy and satisfaction with the destination

Satisfaction is the assessment an individual gives to a product or service; in the tourism sector, satisfaction has an impact on the intention to return to the destination. Gastronomy becomes a crucial factor in understanding and choosing the place to visit, as it is part of the destination’s cultural heritage (Gálvez et al., 2020). When it comes to satisfaction with a visit to a given destination, besides the natural, cultural and artistic resources, the experience creates important expectations for the tourist and, thus, gastronomy becomes an additional tool contributing to overall satisfaction. Ignatov and Smith (2006) identified that the experience with gastronomy at a destination could represent a valuable source of satisfaction for tourists, and this is why gastronomy is increasingly linked to the search for new experiences through a visit to the traditions and culture of a particular destination (Hendijani, 2016). This is why gastronomy is an integral part of the traveller’s behaviour (Carvache-Franco et al., 2021).

The culinary experience in the destination may represent a significant source of satisfaction for tourists (Hendijani, 2016). Carvache-Franco et al. (2021) indicate that gastronomy is a great attractions in a trip; modern tourists appreciate the traditional food cooked in a burner or wood-burning stoves, the cultural roots and the symbolism of a culinary expression. At the same time, Erkmen (2019) showed evidence of the positive effect of the local food on the satisfaction with the destination. For tourists to have an unforgettable experience, they not only need to eat a typical dish but also enjoy the flavours, perceive the aromas and discover the culinary techniques of each location. Widjaja et al. (2020) found that the quality of the gastronomic experience affects both the satisfaction with said experience and satisfaction with the experience in the destination.

2.3 Gastronomy in terms of the overall experience

The overall experience and satisfaction with local food are related to and shaped by the judgment of one’s expectations when comparing the experience before and after the destination (Carpio et al., 2021). Cuisine reflects the image of the destination in every dish served, playing an important role in the choice of a given place by visitors (Ozdemir et al., 2020). Nowadays, gastronomy is a more natural alternative, showing its ingredients and their origin as well as a product that is visually associated with the bounties of the place. The destination image encompasses a group of definitions, such as tourists’ perceptions with regard to the destination they will choose to visit, the ideas and expectations as well as the feelings related to it (Assaker, 2014).

Similarly, gastronomy is a very important tool for the development of strategies aimed at increasing tourism in several places, the so-called culinary tourism, which successfully meets the needs of tourists by providing a customised experience and generating a significant and positive impact on the value perceived by the tourists, as well as their perception of the destination image (Lu & Hu, 2021). Gastronomy involves exploring, selecting, grouping and transforming unknown products into high-class recipes (García, 2022, p. 2). It fosters the traditional dishes, ingredients, culture of each place, region and country, thus leading to the promotion of local products and successful development of a new cuisine capable of changing the negative image of a destination (Castillo-Villar, 2020). Notably, although upscale restaurants are a pull factor for visitors, and even though the local and regional cuisine is not so popular or appreciated by tourists at first, their behaviour after the trip may change upon their arrival to the destination (Carvache-Franco et al., 2021; Cordova-Buiza, Gabriel-Campos, Castaño-Prieto, & García-García, 2021).

Nowadays, the local cuisine has been regarded as a distinctive feature to promote a destination (Sio et al., 2021). An important increase was observed in traditional food over the past several years, given its impact on the choice of destination – as the tourists who have already lived the experience share it by word of mouth – and the satisfaction with life promoted in said place (Lee et al., 2019). By the same token, the cuisine, food and regional products are a necessary and important part of a trip that creates a memorable experience, so the food experience is significantly attached to a place and the destination’s image (Hsu & Scott, 2020). A tourist’s experience in a given place helps them meet their travel needs; the satisfaction allows them to attempt to come back to the place visited. Therefore, cuisine can make a visit more enjoyable, and the local cuisine has become an essential element in the motivation to choose the destination and the tourist experience (Hendijani, 2016). We find this relationship in various studies on local food satisfaction with the general experience of a tourist (Carpio et al., 2021).

2.4 Image and satisfaction with the destination in terms of loyalty

Loyalty to a destination is directly related to the level of satisfaction experienced by tourists; thus, marketing strategies should focus on relevant factors assessed, such as trip quality, perceived value and tourists’ satisfaction (Suhartanto et al., 2020). Therefore, the destination image is considered a significant aspect that has an impact on tourists’ behavioural intentions, as well as their subsequent decisions (Kanwel et al., 2019). Thus, both the destination image and the perceived value are two relevant precedents in the tourists’ satisfaction and may affect the choice of destination (Sun et al., 2013). In this context, it is important to bear in mind the dimensions that are closely associated with destination loyalty, such as perceived well-being, the services received and the destination’s image. Said variables are directly related to the acquired loyalty, what is really relevant when deciding to return to the place (Chen & Tsai, 2007) or sharing positive experiences about it (Ryglová et al., 2018). In addition, the assessment made before the trip, searching for references and decision made to visit the destination and expectations and subsequent experiences are all relevant aspects for tourists’ loyalty to the destination (Baloglu, 2001). Huete-Alcocer and Hernández-Rojas (2022) show that the greater the satisfaction of tourists with the experience of the destination in general and with the culinary experience in particular, the greater their intentions to visit the place again or recommend it to others. Therefore, memorable dining experiences can foster lasting tourist loyalty to the local cuisine and the destination. In addition, Saneva and Chortoseva (2020) defined that service quality is very important for customers’ satisfaction, as well as for their loyalty.

Prior studies on Peruvian cuisine report how this country is rapidly emerging as the newest global culinary highlight (Anderson & Benbow, 2017; Markowitz, 2012), although only few assess the modern traditional cuisine of Peru that deepens their roots in the ancestral inhabitants of the country (Osorio et al., 2021), whereas none of them use the ACSI. Several studies associate heritage and tourism with authenticity and loyalty to a destination (Ramires, Brandao, & Sousa, 2018), motivation and satisfaction (Kim & Thapa, 2018), perceived value and loyalty (Prayag, Hosany, & Odeh, 2013), experience, satisfaction and tourist behaviour (Meng & Han, 2018) and loyalty and satisfaction (Goncalves et al., 2022). Nonetheless, no studies have measured cuisine, satisfaction and overall experience with loyalty to a place from the gastronomic perspective.

3. Hypothesis development

Loyalty is a variable that should be studied in every destination given its close impact with the profitability of products and services (Ahsan, Pratiwi, Nursalam & Efendi, 2019). It includes variables that have a direct relationship with the intention of tourists to travel to a cultural heritage site and the latter promotion to others. With this in mind, the gastronomy (GAST), overall experience (OVER), satisfaction (SAT) and loyalty (LOY) are specifically evaluated (Nguyen, Nisar Tahir, Knox, & Prabhakar Guru, 2018). The model proposed for this study uses four variables to measure visitors’ loyalty in Peru, specifically based on its cuisine:

• The overall experience obtained after visiting Peru. Assigning a value to this variable implies that the tourist has visited this place recently.

• Customer satisfaction is a measurement that considers the number of people who said they would not change or would come back or recommend the destination.

This section sets out the hypotheses of empirical research, the main objective of which is to identify the significant factors that have an impact on the loyalty of tourists to culinary destinations, proposing a methodology that analyses four hypotheses based on the literature, which was previously evaluated. Therefore, based on the bibliographic review conducted, our research hypotheses are as follows:

H1.

Peruvian cuisine is significantly and positively related to the satisfaction with the destination visited.

H2.

Peruvian cuisine is significantly and positively related to the destination’s overall experience.

H3.

The overall experience in Peru is significantly and positively associated with the loyalty to the destination.

H4.

The satisfaction with Peruvian cuisine is directly related to loyalty.

The associations between the various factors that can be observed in the model are shown in Figure 1 (Model proposed).

4. Methodology

Information was collected through a questionnaire completed by each tourist after visiting Peru (Lima) and having a local culinary experience, from September to December 2021. The appropriate validation of this survey and question wording is based on items corroborated from prior research. Once the items were obtained, a refining process was conducted in two phases. First, the items proposed were analysed by a researcher, followed by the test and verification of the final survey by the research manager in Peru. During this procedure, the proper validity of the items making up the constructs of the theoretical model designed for this study was checked twice.

The questionnaire was divided into four sections: the first gathers information about the tourists’ demographic profile, whereas the following sections focus on their assessment of the destination, its quality and their loyalty to it, entailing their intention to come back or recommend a visit to the destination and/or Peru. The different variables were measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1: Totally disagree to 5: Totally agree. The questions previously asked in other studies, as shown in Table 1, were adjusted and used in this research.

During the second phase, the survey was conducted both in English and Spanish. Before starting, the interviewer asked tourists for their cooperation and informed them of the research objectives. Tourists completed the survey in an anonymous and autonomous manner. The questionnaire was made up of the four sections from the theoretical model designed (Figure 1): Gastronomy, overall experience, satisfaction and loyalty. Items concerning the socio-demographic profile were included at the end of the survey. A total of 23 items were used in our model, after undergoing the item removal process through an estimate of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each construct. Fieldwork was performed from September to December 2021, using a simple random sampling of the tourists who visited a restaurant located in the Historic Center of Lima (Peru), being the most touristic area of the city. The surveys were conducted at the end of the gastronomic experience of the local cuisine. The criteria for selecting the tourists were to make only those tourists who came motivated by the local gastronomy. A pre-test including 20 surveys was performed and, overall, there were 190 valid questionnaires.

According to Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), the items’ total Cronbach’s alpha index was calculated, obtaining a value of 0.911, which is considered acceptable as a scale is considered to be suitable if its Cronbach’s alpha is above 0.7. The data obtained in this research has been organized in a table and assessed using the statistical program IBM SPSS 23 (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA) and the Smart-Partial Least Squares (PLS) structural equation software package. The structural equations model (SEM) is regarded as the most appropriate form of literature to corroborate the hypotheses proposed in the structural equations and confirm the model of complex relationships. Being widely used and validated for scientific research in the tourism industry, the Smart PLS 3.2.9 program for the PLS-SEM is used as a tool to analyse the complex interrelationships between observed and latent variables (Sarstedt et al., 2019; Sarstedt et al., 2020).

5. Results

The main findings obtained from fieldwork are described below, differentiated according to the section addressed. First, the results of the descriptive analysis in terms of the socio-demographic profile of the tourists interviewed while visiting Peru are shown in Table 2. Second, the reliability and validity of the model proposed is assessed and, finally, hypotheses are contrasted.

As for the descriptive results of the socio-demographic profile of the tourists interviewed while visiting Peru for culinary reasons, it was found that 52% of them were women, while 48% were men. The surveys were answered by age group: younger than 25 (8%), 26–39 years old (36%), 40–59 years old (49%) and 60 or more years old (7%), and taking into account the range in the level of studies professionals with university studies (60%).

5.1 Assessment of the model’s reliability and validity

The model proposed for this study is the one shown in Figure 1, which suggests the interplay of the relationships between the research elements. With this in mind, the model was evaluated to check for both reliability and validity of the constructs and separate the reflective and formative. From the obtained results, the variables observed measure the theoretical constructs proposed earlier (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011).

Next, the validity and reliability of the means of constructs were assured before making conclusions about the relationships between them (Tompson, Barclay, & Higgins, 1995). The constructs that are formative in the model (loyalty) were evaluated by following the recommendations (Sarstedt et al., 2020). First, according to Henseler (2017), loyalty is considered as a formative indicator in the model proposed, whereas other authors (Diamantopoulos & Winklhofer, 2001; Mathieson, Peacock, & Chin, 2001) state that by using formative constructs, one can check for the existence of the multicollinearity between the different indicators that make up the construct. Accordingly, positive tests for convergent validity were conducted through the redundancy analyses of these constructs (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015). The tests also assessed the collinearity, with the variance inflation factor estimation <5. Obtaining a value of 5 or less indicates the lack of a high multicollinearity (Belsley, 1991). The indicators of the formative constructs were evaluated through weighting, thus considering them to be significant (Sarstedt et al., 2020).

5.1.1 Composite reliability (pc).

Therefore, the construct’s reliability allows to check whether the indicators actually measure the first. The results show all constructs are reliable, as their composite reliability is > 0.7. These are “satisfactory to good” values, as they range between 0.70 and 0.95 (Sarstedt, Ringle, Henseler, & Hair, 2014). The composite reliability index is similar to Cronbach’s alpha, with the only difference that composite reliability is not influenced by the number of scale items. According to Hair et al. (2012), the accepted level of composite reliability is 0.7 and 0.8 in a stricter form. The stricter level (0.8) is exceeded by the four indicators, so the model’s internal consistency is validated.

5.1.2 Discriminant validity.

This index shows the way in which a construct differs from others. The positive acceptance range and the values present in the diagonal shall be significantly higher than those in the lines and columns. In the case of this research, the model meets the abovementioned requirements.

5.2 Hypothesis testing

5.2.1 Explained variance (R²).

Upon validation of the sample measurement model, the internal model was assessed, for the purposes of testing the hypotheses proposed for the relationships between constructs. To do so, the R² value was calculated, and the significance of the relationships could be successfully analysed (Hair et al., 2011). The explained variance of endogenous constructs was found after assessing the values estimated for R², thus obtaining the predictive power of the model (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

5.2.2 Bootstrapping.

Next, in accordance with the above, a Student’s t distribution with 499 degrees of freedom was conducted (n-1, where n represents the number of sub-samples) to calculate the significance of the Path coefficients. This way, values will be obtained with a significance of 0.007, 0.000 and 0.010. In this regard, Table 2 shows the relationship to be studied, effect that said relationship should follow, Path coefficient, t-values and said relationship’s support or lack of it. This way, the acceptance of the five hypotheses proposed is confirmed.

This way, H1 (Peruvian cuisine is significantly and positively related to satisfaction with the destination visited), H2 (Peruvian cuisine is significantly and positively related to the destination’s overall experience), H3 (the overall experience in Peru is directly associated with loyalty to the destination) have been supported. Finally, H4 (satisfaction with Peruvian cuisine is directly related to loyalty) is confirmed. Figure 2 presents the causal relationships of the proposed model.

6. Discussion

This study is based on the growing importance of studying the loyalty of visitors in cities, proposing an analysis of Peruvian cuisine, satisfaction and overall experience at the destination. The gastronomy of the urban capital of Peru, Lima, offers a significant contribution to the research literature on urban tourism. Practical implications include the idea that food management may have an impact on visiting behavior in the future, meaning that the tourism sector can take these factors into account to improve tourist loyalty. The most differentiating aspects for the development of loyalty in gastronomic tourists are established, in a city where different cultures have settled and coexisted, gifting us with one of the most unique and exceptional cuisines worldwide. The feedback from visitors to these regions helped us identify the factors that have an impact on loyalty, through satisfaction, gastronomy and overall image, for the purposes of identifying the most determinant factors for this study.

H1 proved that Peruvian cuisine is directly related to satisfaction with the destination visited. In other words, good cuisine enhances the destination. For practical purposes, the destination managers must promote its peculiar gastronomy, provided that it is confirmed that visitors to the region find it pleasurable. Variables such as tradition, attachment and the environment at the establishments must be looked after by both the restaurant managers and the public administration agents.

H2: Peru’s cuisine has been proven to have a significant and positive relationship with the destination’s overall experience, that is, the Gastronomy variable not only adds satisfaction to the visit, but the experience at the country was also enhanced by it. Although these were more limited, authors confirm this fact (Huete-Alcocer & Hernández-Rojas, 2022), this study is regarded as a contribution to literature.

H3: The overall experience in Peru is positively and significantly linked to loyalty to the destination. In other words, for practical purposes, we should take care of every aspect of a visit, from appreciation to the country image. This hypothesis is consistent with the ones proposed by other authors (Bigné et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2007).

H4: Satisfaction with Peruvian cuisine is directly associated with loyalty; the results obtained in other studies in terms of heritage and tourism (Folgado-Fernández et al., 2017; Chen & Rahman, 2018), as well as aspects specific to gastronomy (Hernández-Rojas & Huete Alcocer, 2021), were validated with those positive factors caused by the satisfaction, gastronomy and loyal image for the intention to come back or recommend the destination. Practically speaking, this entails a responsibility for restaurant and destination managers. First, for the on-going improvement of the business and, second, as public entities should look out for the continuous food-related satisfaction, which eventually affects the destination.

The ACSI model was used in this study to investigate the loyalty of tourists visiting and tasting its gastronomy, which may play a crucial role in the future of the cultural experience in Peru.

7. Conclusion and limitations

Gastronomy may act as a pull effect – as evidenced by the results, factors such as satisfaction with the service, the environment at the establishments and, overall, the enjoyment of the cuisine of Lima give rise to singular values that are perceived by tourists after their visit. This way, Peruvian gastronomy connects tourists with the destination, positively influencing their loyalty to the territory. The hallmark achieved by this heritage, together with the quality observed after the visit, is a sign of the attribute acknowledged for those travellers who wish to learn about the local culture during their trip, through an existing and visitable heritage.

This research confirms that the global experience in the destination and the satisfaction with the gastronomy of Peru (Lima), directly influence the loyalty to the destination; in addition, it is confirmed how traditional gastronomy itself influences the overall experience and satisfaction. All of these factors are important for a tourist destination that strives for the loyalty of its visitors. A tourist who experiences a high level of quality and satisfaction tends to recommend the place visited. These results form strategies and findings that any tourist destination must consider in the strategic planning and development of its tourist products. As such, the proposed model can help develop a long-term market perspective between the private sector, investors and public administrations.

This study has significant theoretical and practical implications for the management of Peruvian cuisine. First, the measurement of satisfaction with the gastronomy of Peru that ultimately aims at increasing the number of visitors returning to the country. To promote the loyalty of this type of tourist, the agents involved need to act accordingly to meet tourists’ expectations, the level of quality perceived of the services provided, visitor satisfaction, in addition to their intention to recommend the destination and visit it again. In conclusion, the study suggests how to preserve the cuisine to please the visitor. Promoting visibility and influencing the blending and the most traditional dishes of Peru as an identifying mark of the territory. At the theoretical level, understanding how the ACSI model works in the gastronomic factor may contribute to improving tourists’ loyalty. In practical terms, the results confirm the idea that food management may have an impact on the behaviour of whether to visit the country in the future, which means that the tourist sector may take these factors into consideration to improve the tourism loyalty. Policymakers should explore new management methods to provide a memorable experience to tourists every time they visit, experience and taste our cuisine.

This study has potential limitations, such as the sample used. Data were only obtained from tourists visiting Lima, Peru, which may indicate that the information gathered only illustrate one specific tourist area, a circumstance that may be improved in two ways; first, by interviewing visitors from other cities in the country and, second, through a longitudinal survey recording the tourists’ emotions over time, allowing for a more accurate measurement of variables. Another variable that was not measured and shows limitations is the COVID-19 variable, from the perspective of visitor care and perception. In the end, as for the future lines of research, we recommend including other internal and external variables, in addition to a further study of the relationship between a destination, its gastronomy and loyalty.

Figures

Figure 1

Proposed research design

Figure 2

The model’s causal relationships

Table 1

Scales used

Authors	Dimension	Indicators
Ghanbari et al. (2021); González Santa Cruz et al. (2020); Hassan et al. (2020); Adzovie and Jibril (2020); Su et al. (2020); Chen and Huang (2019)	Gastronomy (GAST)	(GAST1) Renown (Well-known abroad), (GAST2) Tradition and attachment, (GAST3) Liking, (GAST4) The environment of the establishments visited was pleasant, (GAST5) Satisfied with the cuisine of Lima, Peru
Rogerson and Rogerson (2021); Davras and Özperçin (2021); Deng and Tang (2020); Yasami et al. (2020); Hsu and Scott (2020)	Overall experience (OVER)	(OVER1) Peru’s overall image is positive, (OVER2) Visiting Peru was worthwhile, (OVER3) Peru is a great place to visit, (OVER4) Peru is renowned/appreciated for its gastronomy, (OVER5) Peru is a place I would recommend
Hernández-Rojas and Huete Alcocer (2021); Mora et al. (2021); Rodríguez-Gutiérrez et al. (2020); Widjaja et al. (2020); Perles-Ribes et al. (2020); Carvache-Franco et al. (2020); Özdemir-güzel and Baş (2020)	Satisfaction (SAT)	(SAT1) Easy access from other regions and great infrastructure, (SAT2) Good value for Money in accommodations and restaurants, (SAT3) Its inhabitants are kind and hospitable, (SAT4) A good place to visit with your family, (SAT5) It features great and useful tourist information offices, (SAT6) Comfortable climate, (SAT7) This is a safe destination, (SAT8) A good place to enjoy/relax
Goncalves et al. (2022); Saneva and Chortoseva (2020); Yin and Dai (2021); Ali et al. (2019); Agyeiwaah et al. (2019)	Loyalty (LOY)	(LOY1) I will recommend it to my family and friends, (LOY2) I will come back to Lima, Peru, (LOY3) I will recommend others visit Lima - Peru, (LOY4) My next trip will probably include some of the tourist destinations of Peru (LOY5) I will visit a culinary destination in my next trip

Table 2

Hypothesis testing

Hypothesis	Effect	Path coefficient	T value	p-Value	¿Supported?
GAST → OVER	+	0.829	16.463	0.000	YES
GAST → SAT	+	0.627	8.770	0.000	YES
OVER → LOY	+	0.592	5.691	0.000	YES
SAT → LOY	+	0.315	3.221	0.001	YES

Notes:

a = 0.001 (***); a = 0.01 (**); a = 0.05 (*); n.s. = not supported

Source: Prepared by its authors