Index
Mobility and Inequality Trends
ISBN: 978-1-80382-902-9, eISBN: 978-1-80382-901-2
ISSN: 1049-2585
Publication date: 25 January 2023
This content is currently only available as a PDF
Citation
(2023), "Index", Bandyopadhyay, S. and Rodríguez, J.G. (Ed.) Mobility and Inequality Trends (Research on Economic Inequality, Vol. 30), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 267-275. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1049-258520230000030012
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2023 Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay and Juan Gabriel Rodríguez
INDEX
Absolute inequality
, 140
Agriculture hukous
, 188
Aid to Dependent Children (ADC)
, 77
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
, 77
Autonomous Community
, 221–222, 231
Auxiliary database
, 120–121
relation between age of respondent and wave to impute fathers’ income
, 121
summary statistics of imputed fathers’ income for EPF waves
, 122
Bad distributional inequality
, 55–56
Bad income inequality measurement
Canadian example
, 56–61
distributional equality
, 54–56
Gini coefficient and coefficient of variation
, 52–54
Bad inequalities
, 50–51, 56
Baseline regression
, 249
Bayes’ theorem
, 196
Between-category commonalities
, 58
BGini
, 52–53, 58–59
Blinder and Oaxaca
approach
, 209
breakdown of variance of logarithms of incomes
, 215
decomposition
, 188–189, 195
Canadian example
, 56–61
coefficients of variation
, 59
DCV Analysis
, 61
DGI Analysis
, 60
Gini Decomposition Analysis
, 58
good and bad inequality analysis
, 59
inequality modulated income well-being measures
, 61
subgroup average income and category shares
, 57
Capital income
, 4–5, 9, 24, 76
Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS)
, 110, 115
Children’s outcomes
, 66, 70, 93
China
analysing results of RIF Regressions
, 195
comparing dispersion of logarithm of incomes in two groups, urban locals and migrants
, 195–197
data sources and summary statistics
, 189–191
determinants of logarithm of incomes
, 191–195
differences between provinces in Mincerian earnings functions
, 197–198
income inequality in urban areas in
, 189
pattern of urban inequality changes in
, 190–191
China Family Panel Study (CFPS)
, 188
China Household Income Project (CHIP)
, 185–186
data
, 187
dataset
, 189
survey
, 187
Circumstances
, 66, 77
as ‘parental effort’
, 99, 108
variables
, 79–80
Coefficient of variation, measuring good and bad inequality with
, 52–54
Collective bargaining structures
, 8
COME-HERE database
, 220
Comparison theory
, 110, 112–113, 125–126
Composition effects
, 7, 210
Control variables
, 117–118, 126, 245, 248–249, 264–265
Corporate debt markets
, 244
Correlates of War (COW v3.0)
, 17
Covariates, descriptive trends of
, 18–19
COVID-19
baseline regression
, 249
crisis
, 220
data
, 245–247
descriptive statistics
, 246
empirical results
, 249
heterogeneity test in developed and developing countries
, 249–252
methodology
, 247–249
pandemic and economic stimulus policies
, 245
robustness test
, 252–253
Cross-border investment
, 5, 35
Cross-country analysis
, 151
Cross-National Equivalent File 1970–2016 (CNEF 1970–2016)
, 169
Cumulative distribution functions (CDFs)
, 175
d-inequality approach
, 154
Data
circumstance variables
, 79–80
control variables
, 117–118
cross-section statistics in United States and West Germany
, 170
dependent variable
, 114–115
generation process
, 120
on income inequality
, 10–12
intergenerational immobility
, 75
intergenerational mobility and life satisfaction in Spain
, 114
intergenerational mobility variables
, 115–117
multifaceted approach to earnings mobility comparisons
, 169–173
outcome variables
, 76–79
pattern of urban inequality changes in China
, 190–191
processing
, 45
sources
, 10–19, 189
Decile ratios
, 10, 12, 14, 29, 45
Decomposition
approach
, 70, 74, 97
framework
, 69–70
Degree of dominance
, 176
Dependent variables
, 19, 28, 114–115, 209
developing economies
, 30
high-income OECD
, 29
lagged
, 20
Deprivation
, 144
average
, 144–145
society
, 153, 156
Descriptive statistics, additional details in
, 257–262
Descriptive trends
of covariates
, 18–19
of income inequality
, 12–14
Determinants of logarithm of incomes
, 191–195
regression results
, 193
RIF regression results
, 194
Developing countries
, 26–27
dispersion of wages in
, 5
education inequality in
, 15
income inequality in
, 6
Difference-in-differences framework (DID framework)
, 247–248
Directional mobility
, 166, 168, 177 (see also Positional mobility)
as earnings risk
, 179–180
as equaliser of long-term earnings
, 177–179
as individual earnings growth
, 177
Dispersion of logarithm of incomes
, 195–197
Dissociative theory
, 126
Distributional coefficient of variation (DCV)
, 54–55
Distributional Equality
, 54–56
Distributional Gini coefficient (DGI)
, 54–55
Distributions
, 55, 123
Downward mobility
, 110, 112–113, 123–129, 131
Earlier week (EW)
, 247, 257
Earnings
, 170
mobility as earnings flux
, 166, 169
mobility as earnings risk
, 169, 179–180
Econometric method
, 20–21
Economic inequality
, 244
pandemic on
, 245
Economic policies
, 253
Economic relevance of finance
, 6–7
Economic stimulus policies
baseline regression
, 249
data
, 245–247
descriptive statistics
, 246
empirical results
, 249
heterogeneity test in developed and developing countries
, 249–252
methodology
, 247–249
robustness test
, 252–253
Education
, 7–9, 15–16, 31, 70, 75
Gini coefficient
, 15–16
and income inequality
, 30–34
Empirical analysis
, 2, 10, 169, 173
data on income inequality
, 10–12
descriptive trends of covariates
, 18–19
descriptive trends of income inequality
, 12–14
directional mobility
, 177–180
drivers of income inequality
, 15–18
positional mobility
, 173–176
summary statistics of income inequality series
, 12
Empirical results
additional
, 263–266
baseline regression with short-term effect
, 263
short-term effect in developed countries
, 265–266
Employment status
, 110
Encuesta de Presupuestos Familiares (EPF)
, 111, 120
Equal pay
, 51, 56
Equalising mobility
, 178–179
Estimated Household Income Inequality (EHII)
, 10
Estimation
methods
, 10–11, 19–21, 81
sample
, 45–46
EUROMOD
, 221, 224, 231
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)
, 246
European countries ranking
, 151–155
Ebert’s index of inequality for sample of 36 countries
, 155
pairwise comparisons
, 152
Pearson correlation coefficients for different rankings of countries
, 154
welfare and inequality indicators
, 153
European Union (EU)
, 220
European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC)
, 151
Eurostat
, 151
Exogenous circumstances
, 99
Family Identification Mapping System (FIMS)
, 76
Family income
, 68, 76–77
Finance, economic relevance of
, 6–7
Financialisation
, 6, 17–18
Fiscal policy
, 244–246
Fisher-type unit-root test
, 21
Fit for purpose inequality measurement
, 50
Fixed-effect estimation
, 20
Foreign direct investment (FDI)
, 3
Foster–Greer–Thorbecke poverty measures (FGT poverty measures)
, 221
Functional income inequality
, 9–10, 16
Gâteaux derivative
, 206
Gender
, 110
General least squares (GLS)
, 20
Generalised method of moments estimator (GMM estimator)
, 20
German labour market
, 169
German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP)
, 166
Gini
, 3, 15, 20
index
, 139, 141–143, 151, 186, 199, 206–207
mean difference
, 142
social welfare function
, 141
transvariation measure
, 54
Gini coefficients
, 2, 11–12, 28, 58
measuring good and bad inequality with
, 52–54
Globalisation
, 5–6, 17
financial
, 3
variables
, 20
Good income inequality measurement
Canadian example
, 56–61
distributional equality
, 54–56
Gini coefficient and coefficient of variation
, 52–54
Good inequality
, 50, 56
Governments redistributive policies
, 9
Great Depression
, 243
Gross domestic product (GDP)
, 16, 186, 245
Health policies
, 9
Heckscher–Ohlin model
, 5, 26
Hedonic adaptation theory
, 110, 112
Heterogeneity
baseline regression with cumulative effect
, 250
cumulative effect in developed countries
, 251–252
developing economies
, 30
high-income OECD
, 29
across income distribution
, 28–30
test in developed and developing countries
, 249–252
High-income countries
, 5, 15, 145
High-income OECD countries
, 34
High-income parents
, 66
Household Budget Survey
, 120
Household Registration System
, 186
Human capital model
, 7
Human resource categories
, 58
Immobility
, 69
measure
, 167
Imputation
, 121–122
Incidence
, 229–231
Income (s)
, 70, 76, 166
concept
, 169
determinants of logarithm of
, 191–195
Gini coefficient
, 10
Gini series
, 12
income-based measures
, 11
income-sharing unit
, 45
mobility
, 166
per capita
, 141
survey data
, 141
variation
, 50
Income distribution
, 151
comparison of
, 143–145
heterogeneity across
, 28–30
Income inequality
, 50, 139, 150, 154
data on
, 10–12
datasets
, 10
descriptive trends of
, 12–14
developing economies
, 26
drivers of
, 8, 15
economic relevance of finance
, 6–7
education
, 7–8, 15–16
education and income inequality
, 30–34
effect
, 7
empirical analysis
, 10–19
estimation method
, 19–21
financialisation
, 17–18
functional and personal income inequality
, 9–10
global sample
, 24
globalisation
, 5–6, 17
heterogeneity across income distribution
, 28–30
high-income OECD
, 25
labour market institutions and welfare state redistribution
, 8–9, 18
regional heterogeneity
, 34–38
results
, 21–23
technological change
, 4–5, 16–17
theory and empirical evidence
, 3–4, 23–28
Index of inequality
, 148
Individual earnings
, 68, 166
growth
, 168
individual labour earnings
, 76
Inequality
, 229–231
comparison of income distributions
, 143–145
comparisons
, 142–145
equivalence criterion
, 146
European countries
, 151–155
Gini index and social welfare
, 142–143
inequality comparisons of distributions x and y using relative and absolute Gini indices
, 144
inequality-neutral changes
, 145
intermediate inequality comparisons
, 145–151
mean income and Gini index for 36 European Countries in 2018
, 160–161
modulated well-being measurement
, 51
pairwise income differences for hypothetical distribution
, 142
and social welfare
, 142
values αx for sample of 36 Countries
, 162–163
Inequality of opportunity (IOp)
, 66
accounting for direct influence of preceding circumstances
, 73–74
accounting for preceding and mediating circumstances
, 70–73
conventional definition of
, 74
decomposition framework
, 69–70
decomposition of IGE elasticity
, 69
literature
, 69, 79
on similarities between IGE and
, 74–75
Influence function (IF)
, 206
Information and communication technology (ICT)
, 4
capital
, 22
ICT-intensive branches
, 4
Information technology (IT)
, 4
Institutionalised wage bargaining
, 8
Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE)
, 120
Intensity
, 229–231
of poverty
, 229
Intergenerational education (al) mobility
, 117, 124
Intergenerational elasticity (IGE)
, 66, 69
decomposition analysis
, 80, 97, 101
direct and indirect influence of preceding circumstances
, 90–92
estimates
, 80–92
for family income
, 81, 88–89
for individual earnings
, 69, 81, 86–87
IOp decomposition of IGE elasticity
, 69–75
mediating circumstances
, 82–84
preceding and mediating circumstances
, 84–90
on similarities between IOp and
, 74–75
Intergenerational immobility
data
, 75–80
IGE estimates and decomposition analysis
, 80–92
IOp decomposition of IGE elasticity
, 69–75
Intergenerational income mobility
computation
, 118
literature
, 118
measurement
, 115
Intergenerational mobility
, 113
approaches
, 110
auxiliary database
, 120–121
data
, 114–118
imputation
, 121–122
intergenerational elasticity
, 137
intergenerational income transition matrix
, 122
literature review and hypothesis
, 111–114
methods
, 118
results
, 125–130
in Spain
, 122–124
summary statistics of control variables
, 118
summary statistics of education of respondents and fathers
, 118
summary statistics of household per capita adjusted income
, 116
summary statistics of occupation of respondents and fathers
, 117
transition matrix of occupation
, 123
variables
, 115–117
Intergenerational occupation mobility
, 116
Intermediate inequality comparisons
, 145–151
indices of intermediate inequality
, 148–150
ranking procedure
, 150–151
sharing inequality equivalence
, 145–148
Intermediate inequality views
, 140–141, 145, 150
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
, 18
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and the Vienna Institute of Demography (IIASA/VID)
, 15
International Labour Organization (ILO)
, 2, 6
International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)
, 15
IQ score
, 92
Labour Contract Law
, 188
Labour market institutions
, 8–9, 18
direct equalising effect of
, 9
Labour support regulations
, 8
Later week (LW)
, 257
Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO)
, 135
Least developed countries (LDCs)
, 4
Least-squares-dummy variable approach
, 20
Life expectancy
, 245, 264
Life satisfaction in Spain
data
, 114–118
and educational mobility
, 129–130
and income mobility
, 127
literature review and hypothesis
, 111–114
methods
, 118–122
and occupational mobility
, 128–129
results
, 125–130
Linear regression for outcome
, 105–106
Logarithm of incomes
determinants of
, 191–195
dispersion of groups
, 195–197
Logarithmic GDP per capita (LGDPpc)
, 245
Logit model
, 211
Long-term earnings, mobility as equaliser of
, 168–169, 177–179
Longitudinal survey on Rural Urban Migration in China (Longitudinal Survey on RUMIC)
, 188
Lorenz criterion
, 146
Low-income countries
, 46
Lower-middle-income cluster (LLM-income cluster)
, 34, 46
Luxembourg Income Study (LIS)
, 11
Machine learning
, 110
algorithms
, 111
Market capitalisation (Mcapit)
, 17–18, 20
Mean incomes
, 140–141, 151
Mean squared errors (MSE)
, 135
Median incomes
, 151
Mediating circumstances (C2)
, 66, 82–90
accounting for
, 70–73
IGE decomposition
, 83
inclusion of
, 82
Medical risks
, 82
Microsimulation
analysis
, 188
methodology
, 221, 224–226
Migrants
, 195–197
and total urban population
, 212
Migration
, 110
Mincerian earnings functions
, 191, 197
differences between provinces in
, 197–198
heterogeneity of labour inflow and outflow provinces
, 198
Mincerian Equation
, 120
Minimum income schemes in Spain
change in general poverty measures
, 229
inequality and redistributive effects
, 227–231
inequality and redistributive power for simulated policies
, 227
microsimulation methodology
, 224–226
national arm to fight against poverty
, 222–224
poverty effects
, 229–231
results
, 226–231
Minimum Insertion Income
, 221
Minimum squared error (MSE)
, 119
Minimum vital income (MVI)
, 220–221
Minimum wages
, 8
Mobility
, 125
concepts
, 166–167
directional
, 168
as earnings risk or flux
, 169
as equaliser of long-term earnings
, 168–169
intensity
, 126
measures
, 167–169
positional
, 167
variable
, 125
Monetary policy
, 245–246
Multi-source Gini observations (MS Gini observations)
, 11
Multifaceted approach to mobility analysis
, 166
data
, 169–173
empirical analysis
, 173–180
mobility concepts and measures
, 167–169
summary of multifaceted earnings mobility rankings
, 182
National scheme
, 222, 226, 228
Net inflows
, 216
Non-agriculture hukous
, 188
Non-conventional monetary policy tools
, 244
Non-economic policies
, 245, 253
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
, 224
Non-labour market attributes
, 76
Non-linear decomposition
, 98
Non-segmentation factor (NSF)
, 52
Occupation
, 75
Occupational mobility
, 123
matrixes
, 116
Ordinary least squares (OLS)
, 20, 70, 119, 125, 207
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
, 2, 9, 220
Outcome variables
, 76–79
Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker Stringency Index
, 245
Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID)
, 68, 75, 166
Parental education
, 66, 90, 92
influence of
, 92
Parental effort, circumstances as
, 99
Parental income
, 66–67, 69, 92
Parental occupation
, 66
Pay-equity law
, 56
Pearson correlation coefficients
, 171
Penn World Tables (PWT)
, 16
Personal income inequality
, 9–10
Pooled sample, summary statistics of
, 214
Positional mobility
, 166–167, 173–176 (see also Directional mobility)
transition matrix of positional mobility for United States earnings
, 173–175
transition matrix of positional mobility for West German earnings
, 174–176
Positional mobility measure (Mp)
, 167
Poverty
, 233
effects
, 229–231
minimum guaranteed income based on household characteristics
, 224
national arm to fight against
, 222–224
Preceding circumstances (C1)
, 67, 72, 79, 84–90
accounting for direct influence of
, 72–74
direct and indirect influence of
, 90–92
influence of preceding circumstances not in IGE
, 91
total influence of
, 98
Private debt (PDebt)
, 6, 20
Probit model
, 211
Public policy
, 8
Public sector legislation
, 56
Public spending policies
, 35
Purchasing power standard (PPS)
, 151
Quantile regression approach
, 98
Quantity-based measures of education
, 34
Quasi-structural model
, 70
R-square
, 92
of linear regression
, 66
Recentred influence function (RIF)
, 189, 206–208
analysing results of
, 195
decompositions
, 208–211
regressions
, 208
RIF-OLS regression
, 207
Regional heterogeneity
, 34–38
Regional Minimum Income (RMI)
, 221, 232
Regional scheme (RMI)
, 226
Regressions
, 192
equation
, 46
Relative Gini index
, 143
Relative income differentials
, 140
Relative inequality
, 140
Residents hukous
, 188
Reverse causation
, 46
Reweighting effect
, 211
Robustness checks and extensions
, 97
IGE decomposition
, 97
non-linear decomposition
, 98
robustness check for influence of C1
, 104
robustness check–outcome averages and age cut-offs
, 103
total influence of preceding circumstances
, 98
treating circumstances as ‘parental effort’
, 99
Robustness test
, 252–253
in cumulative effect
, 253
Rural migrants
, 188
Rural–urban migration
, 186
Rural–urban temporary migrants
, 190
SEDLAC
, 11
Shareholder approach
, 7
Sharing inequality equivalence
, 145–148
hypothetical example
, 147
Single-source Gini (SS Gini)
, 12, 45
Social Inequality and Social Mobility in Spain’ module
, 114
Social protection (SP)
, 20
spending
, 27
Social security transfers
, 27
Social transfers
, 76
Social welfare
, 141–143
evaluation functions
, 141
Spain
average monthly values of different incomes in
, 237
changes in extreme poverty measures in
, 240, 242
changes in general poverty measures in
, 241
changes in inequality in
, 238
changes in redistributive power in
, 239
Spanish Independent Fiscal Responsibility Authority
, 221
Spanish Public Accounts
, 222
Specification error
, 196
Standard inequality measures
, 50
State Council
, 188
State owned enterprise (SOE)
, 187
Statistics of Public Expenditure for Economic Development (SPEED)
, 18
Stolper–Samuelson theorem (SST)
, 5
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
, 82
Technological change
, 4–5, 8, 16–17
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)
, 77
Tertiary education
, 34
Time dependence concept
, 171
Total Economy Database (TED)
, 17
Total factor productivity (TFP)
, 16, 20
Total family income
, 76
Trace (T)
, 167
Trade openness
, 8
Trade unions
, 8
Transition matrix
, 173
Treatment variable
, 245
Two-Sample Two-Stage Least Squares (TSTSLS)
, 111, 119
Unconditional partial effect (UPE)
, 208
Unemployment
, 8
UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS)
, 15
Unions
, 8
United States
, 167, 169, 171, 173–174, 176–177, 179
earnings mobility in
, 166
Universal Basic Income
, 222
University of Texas Inequality Project (UTIP)
, 10
UNU-WIDER World Income Inequality Database, Version 3. 4 (WIID3. 4)
, 11, 45
Urban China
, 186
average income in
, 190
income inequality in
, 189
Urban inequality changes in China
difference in average income at decile groups
, 192
pattern of
, 190–191
Urban locals
, 195–197
Variance
, 207
Wage effects
, 7
Wealth
, 93
Welfare state redistribution
, 8–9, 18
West Germany
, 167, 169, 173–174, 177
growth rate of earnings in
, 170
inequality in
, 171
WGini
, 52
World Development Indicators (WDI)
, 17
World Income Inequality Database (WIID)
, 2
World regions
, 2, 4, 10, 14, 34
World Wealth and Income Database (WID)
, 11
Zhejiang Province
, 187
- Prelims
- Chapter 1: Explaining Income Inequality Trends: An Integrated Approach
- Chapter 2: On Measuring ‘Good’ and ‘Bad’ Income Inequality
- Chapter 3: How Much of Intergenerational Immobility Can be Attributed to Differences in Childhood Circumstances?
- Chapter 4: Intergenerational Mobility and Life Satisfaction in Spain
- Chapter 5: ‘Mingling’ the Gini Index and the Mean Income to Rank Countries by Inequality and Social Welfare
- Chapter 6: A Multifaceted Approach to Earnings Mobility Comparisons
- Chapter 7: On Income Inequality in Urban Areas in China During the Period 2002–2013: Comparing the Case of Urban Locals With That of Rural Migrants
- Chapter 8: National Versus Regional: Distributional and Poverty Effects of Minimum Income Schemes in Spain
- Chapter 9: COVID-19 Pandemic and Economic Stimulus Policies: Evidence From 156 Economies
- Index