Technology, Society, and Conflict: Volume 30

This chapter’s goal is to determine the essence and causal connections of the emergence of conflicts at the level of economic systems (countries) due to technological inequality and to find the perspectives of overcoming these conflicts. The chapter models the economic and political conflict of modern time under the conditions of high-tech development based on the methods of variation analysis and regression analysis. It is proven that the scale of technological inequality in the world economy is very large. It is the economic and political conflict of modern time, the essence of which is as follows: the differentiation of economic systems amid digital development predetermines the opportunities for their entering the world markets. This chapter contributes to the development of the theory of economic and political conflicts, proving the existence of technological inequality as a new form of differentiation of economic systems amid digital development and defining this inequality as a new economic and political conflict of modern time. The chapter also contributes to the development of the theory of international trade, disproving – for the first time – the action of the principle of freedom of international trade. The authors describe technological barriers of the world markets, which limit the presence of countries that are behind the leading countries by digital development. Three key factors that determine the level of technological development of the economy are given: knowledge-intensive employment, venture investments and financing of innovations in business. Due to the above, the chapter provides opportunities for technological conflict management.

This chapter is aimed at proving that digital competition is widespread, and the unequal distribution of technologies in entrepreneurship leads to business conflicts. Official Russian and international statistical data for 2021 is used. The variation analysis method is used to reveal differences in the level of digital development of enterprises from various sectors of the Russian economy, as well as differences in the level of digital development of enterprises throughout the world. The contribution of this chapter to the literature consists of the development of the Conflict Theory through the identification of business conflicts in digital competition as a particular type of business conflict, which is characterized by an unequal distribution of technologies in entrepreneurship. The novel nature of the chapter lies in the fact that it has for the first time systematized the factors of unequal distribution of technologies in entrepreneurship. The authors’ classification of business conflicts in digital competition in entrepreneurship according to their determining factors has been put forward. The essence has been clarified and the cause-and-effect relations of business conflicts in digital competition in entrepreneurship have been identified. Recommendations have been developed for the management of business conflicts in digital competition in entrepreneurship, taking into account their peculiarities.

This chapter is aimed at reflecting technologies as the key resources of modern regions, identifying the essence and modelling the digital inequality of Russian regions, as well as forming the methodological foundation for the consistent resolution of conflicts in the regional economy of Russia. Through the example of the regional economy of modern Russia, the method of the variation analysis is used for the analysis of differences between regions that are individually investigated in relation to the level of digitalization, and their regression dependence on the level of technological development is determined. As a result, it has been found that Russian regions are characterized by a number of conflicts due to their multi-aspect inequality; these include innovation conflicts, investment conflicts and quality of life conflicts. The abovementioned conflicts are mainly caused by differences in the provision of technological resources to regions (in their digitalization). The novelty and fundamental significance of this chapter consist in the clarification of the cause of spatial inequality through differences in the provision of technological resources to regions. The unique character of this chapter consists in justification of the technology factor of the emergence of inequality and conflicts of regions. This chapter proves that technological inequality exacerbates other aspects of inequality and conflicts of regions. Originality and practical relevance of this chapter consist in the evaluation of the prospects and development of recommendations for conflict management in Russian regions through overcoming differences in their technological support and accelerating the pace of their digitalization.

This chapter’s purpose is to check (prove or disprove) the argument in favour of technological discrimination of consumers of goods in the conditions of digital development, given the essence of sales conflict, its manifestations and perspectives of overcoming.

The literature review of the existing sources shows that they have an insufficient scientific basis for determining the essence of sales conflict, its manifestations, and perspectives of overcoming in the conditions of digital development and in view of technological discrimination of consumers of goods. To fill this gap in the system of scientific knowledge, the authors use the methods of comparative and correlation analysis of statistical data. The research objects are the top 10 countries from the G20, Latin America, the Caribbean, China, and the United States, which have the highest level of development of online trade and digitalization.

The authors perform an overview of the facts that determine that, from a scientific point of view, there are arguments in favour of technological discrimination of consumers of goods in the conditions of digital development from the position of the emergence of sales conflicts between companies and consumers of online goods. Modern economies are developing along the path of further increase in the technological gap between them, which could be caused by two reasons: differentiation in the level of socio-economic development of separate countries and their different susceptibility to the achievements of the digital economy and digital technologies. Countries with high innovative potential, but without effective innovative systems, undergo ‘digital transformation’. Countries with low innovative potential, but active borrowing and implementation of innovative technologies from abroad, undergo ‘digital adaptations’.

It is proved that the COVID-19 pandemic led to the change of consumer behaviour models, seriously influencing the structure of consumption. While the traditional retail trade is in stagnation, the sales volumes in the system of online commerce continue growing. Together with the development of online commerce, new types of conflicts emerge – they are caused by inequality in the level of technological and digital development of various countries of the world, as well as by discrimination of consumers.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to scientifically test the credibility (proof or refutation) of the existing argument for a technological leap in the COVID-19 pandemic and the post-pandemic period.

Design/Methodology/Approach: The conducted review of existing sources of research literature showed that they have formed an insufficient scientific background for a clear understanding of digital deprivation of services, social contradictions and conflict management as components of technological leap amid the COVID-19 pandemic and in the post-pandemic period. To fill the identified gap in the system of scientific knowledge, this work uses the method of comparative analysis of statistical data. Some countries of the world, the EU countries and the United States, which are characterized by the largest population and the largest contribution of investments to the digitalization of value chains and the development of innovations, were selected as objects for this study.

Findings: Research has shown that rapid digitalization is impacting all aspects of life, including not only how value is created and exchanged, but also how we interact, operate, purchase and receive services. In this process, data and its international flows are becoming increasingly important for development. The usual digital gap associated with connectivity, reflecting significant differences between and within countries in readiness to use the power of data, is exacerbated by what might be termed the data gap. Countries with limited opportunities to transform digital data into digital analytics and entrepreneurial opportunities, and to use them for economic and social development, are obviously at a disadvantage.

Originality/Value: Digital data have been proven to be one of the top strategic assets for creating both private and public value. Our ability to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 2015) depends a lot on how these data are applied. The idea of sustainable development arose, as it is known, for overcoming significant fluctuations in the positive transformation of society, and for the alignment in the pace and results of the transition of various countries to the post-industrial scenario of progress. There are many obstacles on the path of sustainable development, which hinder the transition to this vector of transformation. First, the gap in economic and social development between the countries of the ‘golden billion’ and many other countries has not been reduced. Second, the digital gap continues to deepen. But a new and extremely threatening danger on the path to the transition to sustainable development has become the global crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic that emerged in early 2020 and is still ongoing.

Determining the right course for the future is a difficult task, but its solution cannot be postponed. Data are multidimensional, and their use has an impact not only on trade and economic development but also on human rights, peace and security. In addition, measures should be taken to reduce the risk of misuse and unauthorized use of digital data by states, non-states or the private sectors to avoid the possibility of global social conflict.

Purpose: This chapter aims to test the existing argument in favour of technological discrimination of employees amid the COVID-19 pandemic and the post-pandemic period from the position of labour conflicts between express digitalization and their solutions.

Design/methodology/Approach: The review of the existing sources of research literature shows that their scientific basis for building a clear idea of labour conflicts between express digitalization and their solutions is not sufficient. To fill this gap in the system of scientific knowledge, we use the method of comparative analysis of statistical data. The research objects are the level of technological revolution, level of digitalization, and level of unemployment in the United States and several other countries.

Findings: The results of the research show that digitalization has a large impact on employment and the labour market; in particular, it is a precondition of not only new opportunities for creating new jobs but also increasing the current level of unemployment. Still, it should be noted that the data on the impact of digitalization on the creation of new jobs are rather contradictory.

Originality/Value: It is proved that express digitalization leads not only to the emergence of labour conflicts at the level of companies but also to a large level of unemployment around the world.

Digital development is often considered only from one – economic – side through the lens of its positive contribution to the acceleration of economic growth rate and increase in the global competitiveness level. In this case, conflicts of economic subjects’ interests remain outside the scope of scientific research. The essence of these conflicts consists in the fact that despite the economic advantages, digital development is usually connected to social drawbacks and ecological costs.

Purpose: This chapter aims to study the issue of technological inequality in the modern world economy from the position of assessment of the scale of global conflict and the scenario of its development depending on conflict management.

Design/methodology/approach: The performed review of literature sources has shown that they provide an insufficient scientific basis for determining the level of technological inequality in the modern world economy from the position of assessment of the scale of the global conflict and scenarios of its development depending on conflict management. To fill this gap in the system of scientific knowledge, we use the method of comparative and correlation analysis of statistical data. The research objects are China and the United States, as well as other countries of the world that have the highest level of technological development, trade, and digitalization.

Findings: This chapter provides a review of factors that determine scientific arguments in favour of technological inequality of countries, which leads to a global conflict. Many forms of inequality have a socio-economic character and are connected to access to the main services (healthcare, education, or accommodation), as well as incomes and access to the sources of income, especially in the sphere of employment. The deficit of decent work and inequality turned the COVID-19 pandemic from the crisis of public healthcare into the crisis of employment and social conflict, which influenced the subsistence of millions of employees. There is a real risk that without comprehensive and well-coordinated political actions, the increase in inequality and reduction of general progress in the labour sphere will be preserved in many dimensions. There’s a need for the measures of international policy to provide developing countries with access to vaccines and financial support, including through restructuring of debts.

Originality/value: It is proved that after the creation of the UN, the nature of conflicts and violence underwent serious changes. Conflicts take fewer human lives but last longer, and the frequency of conflicts between groups within a country is higher than the frequency of international conflicts. In certain parts of the world, crimes on a gender basis are increasing in numbers. Besides, technologies allow using robots, drones, cyberattacks, viruses, and hackers for military purposes. At the same time, international cooperation is weak, similar to the global ability to prevent and regulate conflicts and all possible forms of violence. Technological progress changes the character of the development of conflicts. Achievements in the sphere of AI and machine learning will play an important role in this process of transformation, so the character of threats from the government and non-government subjects will change. The use of AI raises the precision of cyberattacks and physical and biological attacks, making the identification of attackers very difficult.

Purpose: The paper aims to explore gender conflict as a factor of global technological inequality from a modelling and conflict management perspective through an analysis of women’s participation in science.

Design/methodology/approach: A review of the existing research literature has shown that there is an insufficient scientific basis for identifying the extent of gender conflict as a factor of global technological inequality through an analysis of women’s participation in science. Statistical data analysis is used to fill the identified gap in the scientific knowledge system. The countries chosen for study are those with the largest gender gaps and technological inequalities in terms of women’s participation in science and knowledge-intensive industries as well as in R&D.

Findings: The chapter reviews the factors that make the case, from an academic perspective, for the technological inequalities and gender gaps in the world leading to global employment conflict. The field of education encompasses numerous interrelated aspects, ranging from the level of demand and supply of educational opportunities to the access and delivery of education. These aspects also relate to the quality of teaching and the learning process, the effectiveness of the education system, individual learning outcomes, and the impact of education on the development and well-being of the individual, the community and the country as a whole. Scientific researchers make an important contribution to improving the quality of the education system: scientific research produces new knowledge further implemented through the education system. Such knowledge can improve people’s lives. Research is often carried out in universities, but also in the commercial sector, particularly in high-tech companies (Research and Development).

Originality/value: Education has been proven to be one of the resources that provide people with equal opportunities in life. Integrating a gender perspective into education includes assessing and promoting gender equality in learning opportunities available to men and women throughout their lives, especially during compulsory education. The gender approach also includes assessing the fairness of the delivery of educational services (such as training, management and course content).

Purpose: This chapter aims to study the modelling of conflict in the labour market in the conditions of automatization based on robots, Big Data and artificial intelligence (AI) from the position of countries’ inequality and conflict management.

Design/Methodology/Approach: It is determined that scientific literature has not formed the sufficient scientific and practical basis for determining the level of technological inequality of countries in the labour market in the conditions of automatization based on robots, Big Data and AI. The research objects are countries with the highest level of technological inequality from the position of automatization based on robots, Big Data and AI.

Findings: This chapter performs an overview of the factors of technological inequality of countries, which leads to the global conflict on the labour market in the conditions of automatization based on robots, Big Data and AI. It is supposed that using the technology and methods of the system of engineering knowledge within conflict management it is possible to find a non-standard solution, which ensures better optimization. A complex technical method proves its rationality and opens the perspectives for further development of the methodology and integration of the systems of knowledge on conflict management; still, from the position of conflict in the labour market in the conditions of automatization, there are not enough means of conflict management that could neutralize or partially solve such global conflict.

Originality/Value: It is proved that full automatization is a price paid by humans for prospering, while it is expected that new technologies will increase productivity and income. This will lead to the dismissal of certain employees and bankruptcy of the existing companies and productions, which is not that important for many large employers. For most employees, this is a conflict against the background of automatization, which leads to worse consequences for them.

Purpose: The purpose of this chapter is to scientifically verify the credibility (prove or disprove) the existing argument for the global technological inequality within the conflict of traditions and innovations, as well as from the perspective of social consequences of the innovative development of the economy and the basics of conflict management.

Design/methodology/approach: A review of existing sources of research literature has shown that they formed an insufficient scientific basis for determining the essence and scope of social consequences of the innovative development of the economy and the basics of conflict management in terms of global technological inequality. The method of comparative analysis of statistical data over time is used to fill the identified gap in the scientific knowledge system in this chapter. The top 10 countries of the world, which are characterized by the highest level of the innovative development of the economy, were chosen as the objects of study.

Findings: This chapter presents a review of facts determining that there are arguments for the conflict of traditions and innovations against the backdrop of global technological progress from a scientific perspective, a conflict that has social consequences for the innovative development of the economy and the basics of conflict management. Today, the protection and promotion of national interests are being increasingly determined by digitalization as the primary function of diplomatic services. For example, cybersecurity affects national security; web platforms support the economic well-being of citizens and companies; the Internet contributes to the development of healthcare, education and other essential social services, especially during the crisis caused by the COVID-19.

Originality/value: It is expected that wide introduction of high technologies in developed countries will reduce the competitive ability of currently less industrialized economies of Asia and Africa in terms of cost of labour, will increase the technological gap between them and developed countries that will diversify their economies and create more jobs. In the past, countries such as China, Mexico, Brazil and several Asian countries were climbing the income ladder, transferring labour force and capital from the relatively inefficient agricultural economy to the more efficient products and services. Today, there are fears that high technologies and Industry 4.0 will revolutionize these conventional development processes, making a thorny path even more thorny, and will lead to conflicts of traditions and innovations as a source of global technological inequality.

Purpose: This chapter aims to address the problem and explore the process of creating the new ‘markets of tomorrow’ from the perspective of the technological inequalities arising in this context and leading to conflicts in international trade, thus prompting the creation of promising areas of conflict management.

Design/methodology/approach: The study is carried out using the comparative analysis methods through the review of analytical data, as well as using the qualitative structural and logical analysis method.

Findings: This chapter reviews the factors that determine the benefits and limits of participating in the creation of the new ‘markets of tomorrow’ in some of the world’s countries. Prospects and recommendations are identified to prevent or partially mitigate the technological inequalities constituting a barrier to the creation of new ‘markets of tomorrow’, provoking conflict in international trade and promoting the development of promising areas of conflict management.

Originality/value: The results of the study generally supported the assumption that recovery from the economic downturn associated with the COVID-19 pandemic requires a comprehensive and sustained economic transformation capable of delivering economic growth that would contribute to the broader social and environmental goals to be achieved over the coming decade. Implementing such a transformation will require the active creation of ‘markets of tomorrow’ through a creative combination of disruptive technological and socio-institutional innovations. The aim is not only to produce more or in a better way but also to transform economies by creating new technological and institutional systems that can address some of today’s most pressing social problems, in particular to mitigate technological inequalities and prevent conflicts from developing.

Purpose: The purpose of this chapter is to determine the impact of technological inequalities on the way of building a socially oriented market digital economy. Also, it considers the problems of social entrepreneurship: the natural essence, as well as the sources and forms of manifestation of conflicts. The main models of social entrepreneurship are identified, as well as the causes of conflicts.

Design/Methodology/Approach: Statistical and regression analyses are used as research methods.

Originality/Value: It is proved that the development features of the digital economy at the present stage largely depend on the degree of technological inequalities of countries.

Purpose: This chapter provides a meso-level scientific and economic study aimed at capturing the nature and extent of technological inequalities manifesting themselves in the regional economy. Regions shall mean economic systems within countries. The authors hypothesize that the regional economy of modern Russia is characterized by pronounced yet moderate technological inequalities at the level of the regional economy.

Design/methodology/approach: A factor analysis of the influence of different factors of state regulation of the regions on technological inequality in Russia is conducted. This makes it possible to develop and substantiate an economic and legal approach to managing conflicts in the sphere of digital development. A bifurcation analysis of wealth and resource dynamics is given.

Findings: In this chapter, the authors examine the basis for state regulation of technological inequalities in Russia’s regions.

Originality/value: The main focus of this chapter is the result of a regression-based factor analysis on the direction of state regulation of the regions on technological inequality in Russia.

Purpose: The purpose of the work is to consider the integration mechanism as a source of overcoming technological inequality. Also, the authors considered the problems of using clusters, special economic zones, technology parks, public–private partnership (PPP).

Design/methodology/approach: Statistical and regression analysis are used as research methods. This work analyses the materials of a survey among Russian employees who were transferred to remote work in 2020, which allows specifying the essence of technological inequality in Russia. A classification of technologies that allow clusters to influence the reduction of the technological gap and overcoming conflicts of business interests is proposed, and the classification of types of government policies is presented.

Originality/value: It is proved that the features of the digital economy development at the present stage largely depend on the degree of technological inequalities of countries. This work fills in a gap in the literature that consists in the uncertainty of the potential of integration mechanisms in entrepreneurship regarding the contribution to the reduction of technological inequality. This work’s contribution to the literature consists in substantiating the presence of this potential on the example of clusters, special economic zones, technology parks, and PPP.