Ecosystem-Based Adaptation: Volume 12

Noralene Uy is a PhD candidate in global environmental studies at the Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan. Her PhD research focuses on ecosystem-based adaptation as a strategy to enhance climate resilience in rural communities. Her research interests include community-based climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction, indigenous knowledge and coastal resources management. She holds master's degrees in development economics from the University of the Philippines and in environmental management from Kyoto University.

Climate change has begun to manifest itself in many ways – from drastic environmental changes to unprecedented climate-related disasters – driving home once again the urgency of undertaking adaptation measures. In this respect, ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation are increasingly being recognized as having important roles in addressing disaster risk and climate change impacts. Not only has science acknowledged these critical roles but also numerous events have demonstrated how vital ecosystems are to human well-being. Making a case for ecosystem-based adaptation is strongly supported because of the huge potential and multiple benefits to be realized by putting ecosystems at the center of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation decision-making and policy.

Ecosystem management has emerged as a preferred, and often, mandated approach to managing ecological systems. However, this comes with much debate because of the complexity in its applicability and feasibility due to political, economic, social, cultural, and ecological factors. This chapter outlines the evolving nature of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA), and provides an insight on the future direction.

Ecosystem services are essential for human well-being. The chapter explores the linkages between ecosystems and ecosystem services, biodiversity, and the Millennium Development Goals. Specifically, it focuses on the discussions in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the ecosystem approach within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity, and ecosystems’ role in the achievement of specific targets of the Millennium Development Goals. It highlights the need for ecosystem-based approaches to ecosystem management, biodiversity conservation, and attainment of human well-being.

In the context of natural disasters and climate change, ecosystems are critical natural capital because of their ability to regulate climate and natural hazards. This chapter examines the important role of ecosystems and their services in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. It discusses the relevance of adopting ecosystem-based approaches in managing risks brought about by a changing climate.

Mangrove has the potential to adapt climate change threats like sea level rise, extreme high water events, and coastal erosions. The large stretched root systems of the mangrove acts as a natural barrier to catch hold of the run off soil, leading to accretion of coastal areas. Due to human and other natural activities, mangroves in different parts of the world are being degraded. Citing examples from India, this chapter provides ways of unique mangrove comanagement system with the involvement of local communities, NGOs, and local governments.

This chapter highlights ecosystem-based adaptation in coastal Bangladesh aimed at securing climate and disaster-resilient environment for safer life and livelihood for vulnerable communities in the face of changing climate. Development intervention based on the opportunities offered by the nature and adaptation management plan from the perspective of vulnerability analysis can make a substantive difference in enhancing resilience. Engagement of broad-based stakeholders at vertical and horizontal levels in building adaptive capacity can be linked through both at the policy and institutional levels as well as at ecosystem levels for effective results. Innovation in convergence of disaster risk reduction and adaptation through fish, fruit, and forest as a part of livelihood integrated into the coastal afforestation ensure better livelihood in a safer coastal habitats. Such forest-based adaptive livelihood and carbon sequestration help land development that is promising to offset the sea level rise due to higher rate of siltation. Climate resilient habitat is another innovative initiative that protects the households, and their livelihood is protected by eco-engineering structures and green defense to make it safer from cyclone and tidal surge.

The watershed approach is recognized as a holistic approach to ecosystem management. The chapter examines the concept of watershed as an ecosystem in relation to ecosystem management, disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation. It describes the importance of watersheds in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. It specifically looks at the watershed approach and provides some case studies showing the important role of communities in watershed management. Moreover, it discusses some incentive schemes in managing watersheds.

Arid ecosystem covers one third of the Earth's surface and is the home town of majority of the population of the world. This ecosystem is also important because it has significant roles in land and water resources management. However, due to anthropogenic land use activities or shifting climate conditions, the features of the ecosystem change and cause diminished vegetative cover, reduced productivity, increased soil erosion, invasion of exotics, and loss of native species. Moreover, in the recent years, earth's vegetative cover may exceed the ecosystem's capacity to adapt, which happens through the consequence of rapid land degradation along with desertification. Therefore, this chapter provides how different regions endeavor with this arid ecosystem by performing various adaptation practices.

The chapter tries to trace the development of concept of urban ecosystem as a problem-solving approach for urban problems, including the unwarranted problems caused by climate change. Urban management has increasingly shifted from infrastructure-based to a more regional-based approach. There has been a shift in the domain of urban ecosystem as well, from the established urbanized area to the aggregation of urban and surrounding rural area. Also, urban-rural linkages are given more attention in resource management in urban areas, thereby reducing the overall risk due to climate change. The chapter provides examples and challenges of urban ecosystem management from across the world.

Benchmarking ecosystem conditions is a prerequisite to any investigation of ecological systems. It provides a description or better understanding of the system under study. This chapter discusses ecological indicators and the conceptual approaches to ecosystem assessment. It introduces a case study on participatory ecosystem resilience assessment in Infanta, Philippines.

Developing countries such as the Philippines depend greatly on their natural resources and ecosystem services. However, the capacity to sustain these services is currently being pressured by various environmental hazards, mainly brought about by climate change. Thus, it is imperative to assess the vulnerability of the environment so that effective ecosystem-based management strategy can be developed to improve the sustainability of these services. This chapter presents a geospatial-based method in assessing the vulnerability of watersheds in the country to various environmental hazards. This model is called the Geospatial-Based Regional Environmental Vulnerability Index for Ecosystems and Watersheds, or, in short, the GeoREVIEW model. GeoREVIEW is composed of 21 indicators and each indicator is evaluated using a scale of 1 to 5. A scale of 1 indicates low vulnerability while a scale of 5 signifies high vulnerability. Finally, to determine the vulnerability level of the area, its overall vulnerability point (OVP) is calculated. This model is utilized to evaluate the vulnerability of two significant ecosystems near Metro Manila – the La Mesa Watershed (LMW) and the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve (MFR). Based on the assessment, it was found that both are already classified as “at risk” levels. However, MFR (OVP=55.24) is found to be less vulnerable than LMW (OVP=62.52). The results from this assessment can be used to improve the management of these areas and can also aid in targeting policy interventions associated with climate change.

The unsustainable management of ecosystem services often arises as a result of the non-recognition of the multiple benefits or under-valuation of ecosystem services. The chapter looks at economic valuation as an essential tool in ecosystem management decision-making and policy. It discusses the economics of ecosystem services, explains the motivations for economic valuation, describes economic valuation methods, and examines the limitations of economic valuation. It emphasizes that economic valuation can be a powerful and convincing tool for placing ecosystems on the agenda of planners and decision-makers.

Climate change poses serious challenges to existing ecosystem governance systems due to the emerging issues that it presents. The chapter discusses two main characteristics of ecosystem governance (i.e., adaptive and collaborative) in the context of a changing climate. It examines the issues to be addressed in the review of governance systems such as ecosystem degradation, adaptation to climate change, and institutionalization of governance structures. It reiterates the importance of considering the consequences of climate change to the ecosystem, economy, and human well-being toward better ecosystem governance.

The key concept of ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is how to think of ecosystem in daily lifestyles (both in urban and rural areas), and how ecosystem-based adaptation can be a tool to adapt daily lives in changing climatic conditions. Sustainably managing, conserving, and restoring ecosystems so that they continue to provide the services that allow people to adapt to climate change is known as ecosystem-based adaptation. Summarizing the key observations provided in the earlier chapters, this chapter provides the ways of action-oriented ecosystem-based adaptation.